i 







COFFEE BRANCH AND BEKRIES. 



A. Blossom. C Fully developed berry. E. Bean in its two inner coverings. 

B. Embryo seed vessel. D. Beans in berry. F. Bean ready for market. 



COFFEE: 



PLANTATION TO CUP. 



A BRIEF HISTORY OF 



COFFEE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 



• APPEETDIX 

CONTAINING LETTERS WRITTEN DURING A TRIP TO THE COFFEE 

PLANTATIONS OF THE EAST, AND THROUGH THE COFFEE 

CONSUMING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 



FEANCIS B. 



if FEANCIS B. THURBER. 



Jhikqlh^j/ 



AMERICAN GROCER PUBLISHING ASSOCIATION, 

28 AND 30 West Broadway, New York. 

1881. 



Copyright by 

PBANCIS B. THUEBER, 

1881. 



■/A 

L -r' 
—J '^ Trow's 

Printing and Bookbinding Company, 
201-213 East 12th Street, 

NEW YORK. 



TO THE MAN AT POUGHKEEPSIE, 

WHO KEEPS THE RAILROAD REFRESHMENT ROOMS, 
THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY 

JDcbicateb. 

I DO NOT KNOW HIS NAME, BUT YEAR IN AND YEAR OUT UE GIVES THE PUBLIC AN 

IDEAL CUP OF COFFEE, AND, ON THE PRINCU'LE OF "ACT WELL YOUR PART, 

THERE ALL THE HONOR LIES," HE IS ENTITLED TO THE PUBLIC'S BEST THANKS. 

PERHAPS IN THE FAR DISTANT FUTURE SOME OTHER RAILROAD BUFFET 

PROPRIETOR MAY FIND THAT A GOOD CUP OF COFFEE ADDS TO, 

RATHER THAN DIMINISHES, THE CHANCES FOR GATHERING IN A 

GOODLY NUMBER OF SHEKELS, AND BE PROMPTED TO GO 

AND DO LIKEWISE. THERE IS EVEN A POSSIBII-ITY 

THAT THE ENGLISH STEAMSHIP LINES, WHICH NOW EN.IOY A PRE-EMINENCE FOR 

BAD COFFEE, MAY LEARN THAT SOMETHING BESIDES GOOD SEAMANSHIP WILL 

ATTRACT BUSINESS, AND WHEN "THAT NEW ZEALANDER" APPEARS 

UPCN THE SCENE THERE MAY NO LONGER BE EXTANT ANY SUCH 

REPROACH AS "SON OF A SEA COOK." I KNOW OF NO PERSON SO 

WELL ENTITLED TO THE HONOR OF THIS DEDICATION, AND SO 

THIS WORK IS ADMIRINGLY AND RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED 

TO THE MAN AT POUGHKEEPSIE, 

ONE OF THE CHOSEN FEW WHO KNOW HOW TO MAKE 

A Good Cup of Coffee. 



PREFACE. 



I HAVE endeavored to tell the story of coffee in a practical 
way, so as to make the information valuable alike to consumers 
and dealers. I have been induced to add to the innumerable com- 
pany of books from the fact that there seemed to be a want for 
a work which, besides furnishing statistical and historical matter 
relative to the coffee-plant, should give the reader a thorough 
knowledge of the characteristics of the world's coffee supply, and 
the mode of preserving and preparing the coffee-bean so as to best 
secure all those qualities which make coffee the favorite beverage 
with most of the civilized nations of the earth. My reliance has 
been chiefly upon twenty years' experience as a dealer, and such in- 
formation as was to be gathered from a trip around the world. I 
have to acknowledge my indebtedness to man}^ books for facts re- 
garding coffee culture, and historical matter relating thereto, and 
also to a large circle of business acquaintances for valuable statis- 
tical information. To mention them specifically is hardly pos- 
sible, and would be of little interest to the general reader. It is, 
however, but just that I should here recognize the many courtesies 
and favors rendered me by General Joseph ils^immo, Jr., Chief of 



VI PREFACE. 

the United States Bureau of Statistics; and mj obligations to 
Messrs. James Cook & Co., London ; the Dutch Trading Company, 
through their New York agents, Messrs. Carter, Hawley & Co. ; 
Messrs. Kern, Ilayn & Co., of Eio de Janeiro and Santos; 
Messrs. H. E. Moring & Co., New York ; Mr. George Wilson, 
Secretary of the New York Chamber of Commerce ; to such pub- 
lications as the Cexjlon Observer and Ceylon Directory ; Dr. Van 
Den Berg's " Statistical and Historical Notes ; " and to the dif- 
ferent works of Mr. P. L. Simmonds ; while in some way or 
other I am indebted in a similar manner to a majority of the 
coffee importers, dealers, and brokers of New York, and to cor- 
respondents in all parts of the world. 

Assistance of a most valuable character has been rendered by 
Mr. Frank N. Barrett, of the editorial staff of the American 
Grocer, who, like myself, has had nearly a score of years' experi- 
ence as a dealer in coffee. 

If perchance I have been successful to any considerable extent 
in contributing to the lovers of coffee any knowledge that will be 
of service to them, I shall have found an ample reward. At the 
earnest solicitation of friends whose judgment I prize, I have con- 
sented to add to the volume, in the shape of an Appendix, letters 
written for the American Grocer during a trip to and from the 
coffee districts of the East Indies, more because they treat of 
matters that directly interest the majority of those by whom this 
little volume is likely to be read than from any literary merit or 
originality they may possess. Prepared, as this work has been, 
in the midst of a busy commercial career in this city of business 
activities, and at a time when public duties have been pressing, it 



PREFACE. Vll 

is more than likely that some defects will be noticed, and many 
infelicities of style or expression ; and were it not for my confi- 
dence in the good nature and generosity of those who are likely 
to read the following pages, I scarcely conld have summoned 
courage to send them forth. At least I have the satisfaction of 
having made an honest effort in the direction of making the 
breakfast tables of the land the source of greater enjoyment, not- 
withstanding that I may have brushed aside some fond fancies or 
revealed trade secrets that others would have jealously guarded. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Introductory, .1 

CHAPTEE n. 

The Plant and its Culture, 4 

CHAPTER m. 

Preparation of Coffee for Market, 8 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Selection op the Bean, 18 

CHAPTER V. 

Roasting the Bean, 22 

CHAPTER VI. 

Grinding, Blending, and Mixing Coffee, 30 

CHAPTER Vn. 

Making the Coffee, 33 

The Thurber Recipe, 33 

Turkish Coffee, 35 

French Recipes 38 

M. Soyer's Method, 42 

A New Orleans Recipe, 45 

Vienna Coffee, 47 

The Beverage in Brazil, .48 

Coffee in Java, 49 

Baron Von Liebig's Method, 50 



X CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER Vm. 

PAGE 

Early History of Coffee, 53 

CHAPTER rX. 
The Mocha Berry, 60 

CHAPTER X. 
The Java Berry, 64 

CHAPTER XI. 

Sumatra, and other Java Sorts, 77 

Celebes, 81 

Singapore Java, 86 

CHAPTER Xn. 
Cultivation in Ceylon, 90 

CHAPTER Xm. 
Cultivation in India, 105 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Liberian and other African Growths of Coffee, . . . .107 

Liberian Coffee Berries and Seeds, ....... 109 

Propagation by Seeds, . . . . . . . . .111 

General Remarks, 113 

CHAPTER XV. 
Empire op Brazil, 117 

CHAPTER XVr. 

The Brazilian Product, , . . . 124 

How Coffee is Imported, ......... 180 

CHAPTER XVn. 

Coffee Culture in the West Indies, 137 

Hayti and San Domingo, 143 

Porto Rico, 144 



CONTENTS. XI 

CHAPTEK XYin. 

PAGE 

Maracaibo and Laguayua Coffee, 140 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Coffee Product of Central America, 150 

CHAPTER XX. 

The Coffee Indttstry in Mexico and Other Countries, . . 154 
Production at other Points, 156 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Adulteration op Coffee, 162 

How M. Grevy obtained a Cup of Coffee, 169 

CHAPTER XXH. 

Chemical Analysis of Coffee — Its Medicinal and Other Proper- 
ties, 171 

CHAPTER XXin. 
The Coffee Trade, 183 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
Coffee Consumption of the World, 204 

CHAPTER XXV. 

The King op the Coffee Trade, . 218 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
The Tropics' Best Gift, 221 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 

Table I. — Imports, Exports, Consumption, and Stock of Coffee in the 

United States, Atlantic Coast, from 1854 to 1880, inclusive, . . . 227 

Table II.— Receipts and Consumption of Coffee in the United States, 1851 

to 1880, inclusive, 228 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAoa 
Table III.— Comparative Prices, New York Market, 1858 to 1880, inclusive, 228 

Table IV. — Cargo Prices of Fair to Prime Rio Coffee in New York, Duty 

Paid, Monthly, from 1825 to 1^80, inclusive, . . . . '.220 

Cargo Prices of Hio Coffee in New York at the Beginning of 

each Month, 1825 to 1845, inclusive, .... 230 

Cargo Prices in Gold, " In Bond," for Fair to Prime Rio Cof- 
fee in New York, from 1846 to 1880, inclusive, . . 231 

Table V. — Price of Java Coffee in New York, 1858 to 1880, inclusive, . 233 

Table YI.— Comparative Monthly and Yearly Prices for Three Years, . 237 

Table VII. — Receipts of Sundry Kinds of Coffee, not enumerated specific- 
ally, into the United States (Atlantic Coast), 1866 to IbSO, inclusive, . 237 

Table VIII. — Circular Estimating and Proclaiming, in United States 
Money of Account, the Values of the Standard Coins in Circulation of 
the Various Nations of the World, 238 

Table IX.— Premium on Gold at New York, 1862 to 1878, inclusive, . 239 

Table X. — Cost of Exchange in Rio de Janeiro, showing Lowest and Higii- 
est Rates of Exchange from 1850 to 1879, inclusive — in Rio de Janeiro 
— from Official Quotations, 240 

Table XI.— The World's Production of Coffee, 240 

Table XII.— The World's Consumption of Coffee, 241 

Table XIII.— The Coffee Production of the Whole World, according to 

Prof. Van Den Berg and other Authorities, ...... 241 

Table XIV. — Consumi^tion of Coffee in Non-coffee Producing Countries, . 243 

Table XV. — Stock of Coffee in the Principal Depots of Europe, January 1. 

1842, to 1881, .'244 

Table XVI.— Comparative Statement of Imports of Coffee, 1850 to 1880, . 244 

Table XVII. — Consumption in the German Zollverein, 1836 to 1880, inclu- 
sive, ............. 245 

Table XVIII.— Consumption of Coffee in France, 1832 to 1880, inclusive, 245 

Table XIX. ^Quantities and Values of Tea and Coffee Imported into and 

Exported from the United States, from 1858 to 1881, inclusive, . . 246 

Table XX. — Quantities and Values of Imported Tea and Coffee Retained 
in the United States for Consumption, and the Estimated Consumption 
per Capita of Population, during the Years 1830, 184U. and from 1850 to 
1881, inclusive, . . .247 

Table XXI.— Weights in Use in Coffee-producing Countries, with their 

Equivalents in United States Currency, ...... 248 

Table XXII.— Prices of Good Ordinary Java in Holland, 1871 to 1880, 

inclusive, ............ 249 

Table XXIII. — Exports of Coffee from Rio de Janeiro for each Calendar 

Year, 1817 to 1880, inclusive, ... .... 249 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

APPENDIX. 

PACK 

Patents on Roasted Coffee, 253 

"NOTES BY THE WAY." 
Across the Pacific, 257 

Japanese Notes, 261 

Tea Culture in Japan, 2G1 

Impressions of Japan, .......... 205 

Japanese English, .......... 270 

A Japanese Dinner — Japanese rroducts. Progress, etc. , . . . 275 

Chinese Notes, 279 

Tea Culture in China, 283 

Chinese Manners, Customs, and Peculiarities, ..... 288 

Canton Manufactures — Sweetmeats, Preserved Ginger, Soy, etc., . 293 

A Visit to Canton — A Floating City — Female Hotel-Runners— A Chinese 
Dinner — Dog- and Cat-Meat Restaurants — Chinese Tailors — Kites, 

Currency, and other Peculiarities 295 

Singapore. 303 

Tropical Life and Scenery — A Visit to Pepper and Tapioca Planta- 
tions, etc., ........... 303 

Tea-Guowing in Java, 308 

Half-way Round, 310 

Tropical Scenery — The Most Beautiful View in the World — British 

Colonization Policy, etc. , ........ 310 

Ceylon, 314 

Canoes at Point de Galle — Cocoa-nut Trees — Female Polygamists, . 314 

Coffee Culture — Coffee in the East as a Beverage — Long Names, etc., . 317 

Sundry Spices — Their Growth and Preparation, ..... 319 

Nutmegs, 320 

Cloves, 321 

India, 323 

A Bird's-eye View— Its Extent, Population, Productions, Government, 

etc., 323 

Wayside Scenes, Thoughts, and Fancies in India, 327 

Our Tiger Hunt, 341 

From Bombay to Egypt, 347 

Egypt and Turkey, 354 

Greece and Her Currant Crop, 360 

Italy 366 

Wayside Scenes, Thoughts, and Fancies in Italy, 366 

Citron and Macaroni, 373 

A Glimpse at Spain in 1877 377 

Raisin Culture and Preparation for Market, . . • . . . 382 

Olives and Olive Oil, 386 

Sherry— Its Manufacture, Treatment, and Characteristics, . . . 390 



XIV CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

France 395 

Wayside Scenes, Thoughts, and Fancies, ...... 395 

Parisian Peculiarities — Horse-meat as Food — Visit to a " Boucherie de 

Cheval," 399 

Bordeaux Wines— A Description of the Medoc District — Official Classifi- 
cation of Celebrated Vineyards — A Visit to Chateau Lafite, etc., . 402 

Red Wines 403 

White Wines, 405 

A Model English Gkocery-Stoke, 407 

Arrangement of Stock, Dressing of Windows, etc., .... 407 

The Salt District op Cheshire, 412 

English Salt, How it is Made— Down in a Salt Mine— The Different 

Strata and Qualities of Rock- Salt in the Cheshire District, . .413 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Coffee Branch and Berries, Frontispiece. 

Picking Coffee, Facing -page 1 

Pulping Coffee in Brazil, " 9 

Drying Coffee by Steam in Brazil, .... " 13 

Coffee-Cleaning Machine, " 14 

Picking over Coffee, " 15 

Coffee-Roasting, " 26 

Arabian Coffee Plant, " 60 

Coffee-Hulling Machine, " 99 

LiBERiAN Coffee Plant, . " 107 

Sacking and Weighing, " 129 

Coffee Warehouses, " 133 

Drying Coffee on the Terrace, " 148 

Plate I.— Fig. 1. Fragment of Roasted Coffee, ... " 168 

Fig. 2. Roasted Chicory Root, .... " 168 

Plate II.— Fig. 1. Fragment Genuine Ground Coffee, . " 169 

Fig, 2. Fragment Ground Coffee Adulterated 

with Chicory, " 169 



COFFEE 



PLANTATION TO CUP. 



CHAPTER I. 



INTKODrCTOKY. 



Coffee, a most important item in onr domestic economy, is 
entitled to more attention than it generally receives. At a ma- 
jority of breakfast tables, "if the coffee is good everything is 
good," a fact so significant in itself that no other argument is 
needed to prove the all-importance of uniform success in the 
preparation of this one article. 

Books innumerable have been written about this famous berry. 
It has been made the subject of investigation by savants ; govern- 
ment commissions have made voluminous reports upon the soil, 
climate, and varieties of the plant desirable for production ; yet 
little attention seems to have been given to what is really the 
most important branch of the subject, viz., the selection and treat- 
ment of the bean subsequent to production, so as to ensure with 
a proper degree of certainty, the development of its admirable 
qualities in that much-to-be-desired article, a good cup of coffee. 
In issuing this work, therefore, while including some facts of gen- 
eral interest relative to production, I have given greater promi- 
nence to those which relate to consumption, and are likely to 



"2 COFFEE. 

prove of immediate interest and benefit to dealers in eofPee as 
well as coffee-drinkers. 

The present undertaking originated in my love for a good cnp 
of coffee, and a curiosity to know why there existed such a wide 
range in the quality of the article at my own table, as well as at 
others. I began by investigating the mysteries of the kitchen ; 
and this led to an examination into the different ways of making 
the beverage, mcluding the use of many patent coifee-pots ; the 
degree of fineness to which the coffee should be ground ; the 
method and extent of roasting ; the deterioration in quality after 
roasting ; the best receptacle for the preservation of the aroma ; 
and finally, in connection with my own business, a study of the 
varieties and qualities producing the best results. This, as may 
be inferred, extended over a period of several years, and through 
many hundreds of experiments, and since then I have had an op- 
portunity to verify impressions then formed by observations made 
in some of the principal coffee producing and 'consuming countries. 

Grown in different and widely separated parts of the world, it 
is natural that there should be a considerable difference in the 
appearance, quality, and flavor of coffee. It is not, therefore, 
strange that individual tastes, accustomed to the use of a particu- 
lar variety, should prefer it to other kinds which possess, possibly, 
even greater intrinsic value. It is this difference in tastes and 
opinions which renders it a difficult task for even an expert to 
point out an infallible way of suiting every consumer. There are, 
however, conditions both in the selection and preparation of the 
bean which apply equally to all varieties, and which, if observed, 
will add greatly to the satisfaction of lovers of coffee. It is not 
within the scope of this little volume to treat of matters that 
chiefly concern the producer, except to take a cursory glance at 
such items as may have a direct bearing upon supply ; such, for 
instance, as the ravages of leaf-disease in Ceylon, or the labor 
problem in the empire of Brazil. 

In the start I recognize that prejudice, the result of habit, is 
met with at every turn. There are honest differences of opinion 
as to what constitutes a good cup of coffee, and therefore it is not 
my design to attempt to convince the lover of black coffee that a 
weaker beverage is the more palatable, or to argue with those who 



INTRODUCTORY. S 

are best pleased with an infusion made by grinding the fragrant 
bean with some foreign substance. Experience has demonstrated 
that the beverage is one that speedily wins friends. I hicline 
to the belief, as often expressed, that coffee was designed for 
man's sustenance and happiness as much as the golden grain, or 
the delicious fruits of mother earth. Somewhere I have read of 
the great surprise and delight manifested by the Indians on the 
Western plains when first made acquainted with the beverage. 
Usually indifferent to new objects, they fail to restrain their de- 
light over the comforting draught. It is a matter of record that 
they have travelled several hundred miles in order to gratify their 
taste for coffee. ' The story has been told of an Indian chief who, 
dressed in a robe of great beauty, came in contact with a trader, 
who tried every means to secure the coveted garment. At last 
the meeting terminated with the accustomed treat of coffee. The 
chief was one of the first to gratify his palate with the beverage. It 
seemed as if his spirits had been roused by some unseen power, 
lie pressed eagerly for more, and, delighted at receiving a second 
supply, he threw upon the trader, as an expression of his joy, the 
magnificent robe that money could not purchase. , Similar ex- 
periences attended the introduction of coffee into all the countries 
where it is consumed, and if to-day thousands fail to find pleasure 
in lingering over a cup of delicious coffee, it is due, probably, to a 
lack of knowledge how to select and prepare the bean. My expe- 
rience at home and abroad leads me to the belief that two-thirds 
of the lovers of coffee are, from lack of knowledge, daily cheated 
out of the solid enjoyment of an ideal cup of coffee. Especially 
is this true on lines of travel and at places of refreshment. The 
sort of coffee served in the average American restaurant or hotel 
is not calculated to command the homage of either savage or civ- 
ilized creatures. It is, then, my design to try and point out how 
dealers may select and furnish, and how consmners may prepare 
coffee which will satisfy the critical palate. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PLANT AJSTD ITS CTJLTUEE. 

The range of coffee-cultnre extends over almost the whole of 
the tropical belt of the globe, the isothermal lines between the 
twenty-iifth degree north and the thirtieth degree south of the 
equator comprising the principal regions adapted to the growth 
of the plant. The plant seems to bear greater climatic extremes 
than most members of the vegetable kingdom, and thrives in lo- 
calities differing as much as twenty to thirty degrees in average 
temperature. 

It is a fact well worthy of notice that in many of the countries 
where the Coffoea Arabica — the coffee of commerce — has been in- 
troduced, indigenous varieties of the coffee-plant have been dis- 
covered, as in Mam'itius, Southern India, Liberia, Costa Rica and 
Mexico, Peru, Guiana and Brazil. In the last-named country no 
fewer than sixteen species are distinguished, growing in a wild 
state. 

The coffee-plant, although of hardy growth, is not without 
enemies, among which the principal are the borer, the bug, and 
the leaf fungus. Drought, damp, and rot also affect and injure 
the plant. In some countries shade-trees are necessary in order 
to protect it from excessive heat. In Ceylon coffee-trees under 
shade do not produce as liberally as trees planted in open ground, 
and, except in very low districts, shade is rarely provided. In 
Yenezuela the long dry season makes it necessary to give the 
plants the shelter of large overhanging trees. In Brazil coffee is 
grown in the open. Monkeys, squirrels, and jackals are fond of 
the ripe berries, and make no scruple to plunder the plantations. 
A species of rat is also addicted to making inroads upon the coffee- 
fields and biting off the leaves and tender shoots. 



THE PLANT AND ITS CULTUEE. 5 

The limit of average productiveness is about thirty years. 
After that time the trees may continue to live and grow, but 
they yield little or no fruit. In Java, coffee-trees planted nearly 
a lunidred years ago are said to be yet in existence, being now- 
some forty feet high, with trunks of the thickness of a man's 
thigh ; but they grow entirely wild and produce no berries. On 
an average, the trees are replaced on the plantations every twenty 
years. This process of replanting goes on constantly. On the 
whole, the cultivation requires great care and unceasing attention, 
together with considerable capital to await the coming into bear- 
ing of the trees and to meet the heavy current expenses. 

Coffee grows best on the uplands — usually on mountain sides 
at an elevation of from 1,500 to 4,500 feet above the level of the 
sea. In dry districts it is grown at an elevation of 5,500 and 
even 6,000 feet. The following directions are given by an ex- 
perienced planter in the East : " As a general rule, the best zone 
of latitude for coffee is 150' on each side of the equator ; of alti- 
tude from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. The deeper, freer, and richer the 
soil is the better. It should be specially tested for phosphoric 
acid and potash. The latter will be in abundance if a large 
forest is felled, and burned grass-land must be very good to grow 
coffee. An eastern or southeastern exposure is good, but not 
always essential. Shelter from tearing wind, however, is of the 
utmost importance, and in windy situations should be secured by 
leaving belts of timber, or planting fast-growing Australian trees. 
A mean temperature between 65° and 70° or 73° is desirable, and 
a rainfall of from 70 to 150 inches of rain, well distributed, about 
100 inches being the best." The trees are raised from the seeds 
in nurseries, and transferred to their final positions when about a 
year or eighteen months old. Plants raised from seeds are nmcli 
better than those obtained from cuttings. A costly system of 
raising plants in pots has been commenced in Brazil, the planter 
claiming a gain of one year for those thus raised over such as are 
obtained by the ordinary method, as there is no set back to the 
plant in the process of transplanting, the roots remaining undis- 
turbed. 

The plants are usually set at intervals of eight or ten feet, 
although in some plantations they are placed a little closer, the 



6 COFFEE. 

rows, however, being about this distance apart. They begin 
bearing at the age of three to four years, their product annually 
increasing, and at six years they may be said to be in full bearing. 
The yield varies greatly, however, in diffei-ent countries, being in- 
fluenced by modes of culture and changes in the character of the 
seasons ; taking one year with another a tree in full bearing pro- 
duces from two to three pounds per annum. Careful pruning is 
required to develop and maintain the productive capacity of the 
trees. Left to themselves they would grow to a considerable 
height ; but when about eight feet high the tops are cut off, which 
causes them to spread instead of growing taller, and afterward 
they are kept pruned down to about eight feet, and in some coun- 
tries, notably Ceylon, even lower. Within recent years pruning 
in Ceylon has been lighter than was formerly the custom. A 
licavily pruned tree is regarded as most liable to be attacked with 
leaf disease. Regarding the Coffoea Liberica, a planter in the 
low country of Ceylon says : " Topping the Liberian coffee-tree 
is a very objectionable operation. The Arabian coffee-plant can 
be forced into an artificial form without the sacrifice of any of 
its crop, because there is a period, longer or shorter, between the 
crop and the blossom, in which old wood can be eliminated, but I 
cannot very clearly see how the artificial form is to be advan- 
tageously imposed on a tree that carries its full crop all the year 
round, and on which pruning can only be canied out at a sacrifice 
of crop. One of the objects of forcing Arabian coffee into the 
artificial form is to get the whole growth under hand, so as to 
facilitate and cheapen the gathering of the crop ; but the average 
Liberian tree puts out its first branches at a height of stem little 
short of that at which the Arabian plant is usually topped, so 
that this end cannot be answered by topping at six or seven feet. 
I do not insist on these objections as the result of experimental 
study of the tree, but so far as I have gone they seem to me to 
be well founded." The average diameter of the trunk in full- 
bearing trees is about the size of a man's wrist. They bear a 
profusion of dark green, glossy leaves, and the fruit or berry 
forms on the woody stems, usually at the base of these leaves. 

A dissection of the fruit or berry, which, when ripe, is red in 
color and much resembles a large cranberry, or medium-sized 



THE PLANT AND ITS CULTURE. 7 

clien-y, shows that it consists of five different parts, covering the 
two beans, which lie within, face to face. First, we find the outer 
skin, very similar to that which surrounds the cranberry or cherry. 
Second, we have a soft pulp enclosed by and adhering to the out- 
side covering:. The removal of the two first reveals a third coat- 
ing, which consists of a soft glutinous substance, strongly saccharine 
in its character. The fourth part is a sort of envelope, called by 
some the parchment. It is rather tough and somewhat thicker 
than the husk of wheat. It is of a yellowish-white color, and is 
easily removed by friction. I^ext to the parchment there is 
found a thin gossamer film, designated in Ceylon " silver-skin " 
and in Brazil the pergaminho, and in appearance resembling the 
thin skin which covers the white onion designated " silver-skin.'' 

Picking begins in Java in January and lasts three or four 
months. The chief part of the Ceylon crop is gathered from 
April to Jul}'. A small crop, chiefly young coffee, is picked from 
September to December. In Brazil they commence gathering 
the crop in April or May, the work continuing until September. 
AV^omen and children are largely employed in gathering the fruit, 
carrying it from the field in baskets to the mill house or terrace, 
where the preparation of the berry for market commences. 



CHAPTER III. 

PEEPAEATION OF COFFEE FOR MARKET. 

After the berries have been harvested the first operation to 
which they are treated is designated pulping. This is accom- 
plished in either of two ways : one fashion is to pulp the berries 
or " cherry," as they are termed in the East, in the soft state, 
which mode is favored in Ceylon ; the other seeks to dry the 
berry first, and then remove the dried skin and pulp by a machine 
called a huller. The latter is the old way, while the former is 
known in the East as the "West India method. "Where the latter 
way is chosen the berries are spread upon terraces or drying 
grounds of stone, mortar, or cement, somewhat elevated in the 
centre, and there kept until complete desiccation takes place, care 
being taken to cover them over if it should rain when they are 
wholly or partially dried. Coffee prepared in this w^ay is desig- 
nated THICK HULL Or SUN DRIED. 

The first process is adopted when the fruit is fully ripe. If, 
however, the berries have been allowed to remain too long upon the 
branch, Or have been gathered before arriving at maturity, the 
pulper is not brought into use, and the second method comes into 
favor, which takes the berries, after being properly dried, and 
runs them through a machine called a huller, which in Brazil is 
generally of American make. These machines are worked either 
by hand or steam-power. Some hullers, that wall hull 10 arrobas 
(323 pounds) of coffee when worked by hand, will hull 800 arrobas 
(26,824 pounds) in the same length of time when run by steam, 
another instance of the power of machinery to compensate for a 
deficiency in the labor supply. 

In Ceylon the natives remove the dry pulp by pounding, using 
a common pounder, such as is used for removing the hull from 



PEEPARATION OF COFFEE FOE MARKET. 9 

rice. From want of care in the harvesting of the fruit, and 
the use of somewliat primitive methods of preparation, the native 
coifee lacks " style," and contains more or less damaged beans. In 
consequence of this the new method of preparation is rapidly grow- 
ing in favor, although there are many coffee-drinkers who main- 
tain that coffee produced by the old method is superior in flavor. 

The new method, sometimes termed the " West India prepara- 
tion," seeks the removal of the skin and pulp by maceration in 
water. On large Brazilian plantations the berries are carried to 
a large vat, from the bottom of which the heavier berries are 
drawn off by a pipe to the pulping-machine (despolpador), the 
lighter or worthless berries being carried off by the retreating 
water. This is also the plan adopted on the best plantations in 
Yeuezuela and Ceylon. 

The pulping process is best accomplished as soon after the ber- 
ries are gathered as is possible. On the opposite page will be found 
an illustration showing the working of a pulping-machine upon a 
plantation in Brazil. It is a simple contrivance, consisting of an 
iron cylinder, set with teeth, and covered on one side by a curved 
sheet of metal, which it strikes as it revolves. A stream of water 
carries the berries to the cylinder, where they are crushed between 
it and the cover, the operation loosening the pulp. The macer- 
ated berries are then conveyed to a vat some distance off, the water 
being kept agitated by a revolving wheel, and serving to remove 
the loosened pulp, which is carried away by the waste water, the 
seeds sinking to the bottom of the vat, from which they are taken 
to a strainer, which drains off the water, leaving them ready for 
the next operation. 

A variety of machines are used, and the process of conveying 
the berries to and from the pulper is more or less elaborate. In 
Ceylon the pulpers are of two kinds, the pulping surface of one 
being a cylinder, and that of the other a disk. The former are 
large, and the most expensive, the latter small, cheap, and port- 
able, thus bringing them into favor upon estates lying far in the 
interior. The disk pulpers are largely used in Java and on the 
coast of India. 

Messrs. Walker Brothers, of London, who are large manufac- 
turers of pulpers, say : 



10 COFFEE. 

" 111 pulping three tilings are aimed at — to pnlp rapidly, 
cleanly, and witlioiit damaging the beans. By clean pulping we 
mean separatmg entirely and thoroughly the bean from the pulp, 
so that as little as possible of the pulp should pass to the cisterns 
with the parchment. It is of great importance, too, that the beans 
be not pricked or scratched. If the inner skin of the bean be 
broken, it will generally run to powder when dried, and so be lost 
to the planter. The point, therefore, is to find a surface that will 
be rough enough to take off the pulp, and yet have no sharp 
points or edges to injure the bean. The surface of both cylinder 
and disk is a thin sheet of copper or brass — generally copper. For 
the disks the copper is punched or knobbed by what is called a 
' blind ' punch ; it merely raises the surface of the copper into 
rows of oval knobs, but does not pierce through the sheet, and 
hence leaves no shai-p edges. The cylinders have a patent ' half- 
moou ' punch, which pierces the copper and throws up the broken 
edge into almost a half-circle, and it is found that this form of 
punch does extremely little injury to the beans. 

" Some of the cylinder-pulpers used in the East are very large, 
having a capacity to readily pulp 100 bushels of berries per hour, 
and when pushed can be made to pulp 150 to 160 bushels per 
hour. 

" The ' gearless ' pulper has two pulping cylinders, two pairs 
chops, hopper and feed-boxes of galvanized iron, a large sieve 
with circular motion, and a set of elevator buckets for the pur- 
pose of raising unpulped or imperfectly pulped cherry thrown out 
by the sieve, and re-delivering it to the pulping cylinders. No 
wheels are used in driving the cylinders, and otherwise it is sim- 
ple in its construction, less liable to accident than most pulpers, 
and all its working parts are easily reached. It can be driven at 
a very effective speed by a sixteen-feet water-wheel, or a three- 
liorse-power engine. In this pulper the cherry is dropped into a 
central hopper, and from thence passes into two side hoppers. 
From these it drops on to the sides of the cylinders, and the pulp- 
ing is effected at the chops, where the cherry is pressed between 
the cylinders and the upper chop, which loosens the beans. The 
pulp is drawn down between the cylinder and the edge of the 
lower chop, while the beans pass out between the chops. The 



PREPARATION OF COFFEE FOE MARKET. 11 

pulp and beans are tlnis separated, the former being floated away 
to the pulp-pit, to be afterward used as manure. The beans, 
along with which there is always a quantity of unpulped cherry 
and pulp, fall into a sieve, which allows the beans to pass through 
it nearly clear of any of the unpulped cherry and pulp, and to be 
carried off by means of spouts to the cisterns. The unpulped 
cherry and pulp are delivered into a well, from which they are 
returned by an elevator into the central hopper, to be again passed 
through the pulper along with fresh cherry. This work goes on 
continuously till all the cherry picked the same day is pulped. 
One man is generally placed to see that the supply of cherry is 
kept up, and another to attend to the pulping. All our experi- 
ence goes to show that regular feeding of the cherry at the liopper 
is of the utmost importance in pulping. 

" The berry, after being divested of its pulp, is called parch- 
ment-coffee, it being within a cover resembling thin parchment, 
to which adheres a glutinous substance, slightly saccharine, and 
the inner bean is again surrounded by a thin gossamer filament 
known as the silver-skin. The Ceylon process allows the parch- 
ment to remain in a cistern for forty-eight hours, or until the glu- 
tinous matter is removed. After this it is subjected to repeated 
washings with water, and then dried in the sun. It is dried suffi- 
ciently on the estate to enable it to be conveyed to Colombo, the 
port of shipment, and at Colombo it is more thoroughly diied, 
and during the operation it is subjected to careful examination, 
and all foreign substances — bits of stick, stones, mud, etc. — are 
picked out by hand ; and then the two husks — the parchment and 
silver-skin—are removed by a machine called a peeler. After the 
peeler, it has still to pass through the winnower and the sizing 
machine, the latter being a machine for the purpose of separating 
the beans into different sizes ; and when these processes are com- 
plete the parchment has become clean coffee, and is ready for 
shipment. 

" Cisterns for fermenting and washing operations are usually 
made of solid masonry, covered either with asphalt or cement. 
The arrangements made by different planters are not all alike. 
Some have cisterns (generally two) into which the pulped coffee is 
received from the pulper and kept till it is fit for washing. These 



12 COFFEE. 

are called fermenting cisterns, and alongside of them there are 
other cisterns for washing only. The latter are so arranged that 
the coffee can be run into them from the fermenting cisterns. 

" Other planters prefer to do their fermenting and washing in 
the same cisterns. The pulped coffee is received into the cisterns; 
it is allowed to remain there till fit for washing, and then washed 
without change of cistern. Under both arrangements a tail cistern, 
generally long and narrow, is formed at the lower end of the 
washing cisterns, at a lower level, and with a perforated iron bot- 
tom. There is a door-frame at the lower end of each washing 
cistern, and this frame is fitted with two doors. One is of per- 
forated iron, the perforations being such as to allow water freely 
to escape, but not coffee. The other is usually made of movable 
little boards placed on edge, the edges fitted exactly to each other, 
so that one, or two, or more boards may be put in to retain as 
much water as may be wanted during washing operations. 

" Three fermenting and washing cisterns, each about 20 ft. x 
10 ft. X 2 ft. will be found sufficient for an estate taking in 400 
bushels cherry per day. 

"If more coffee be expected daily, the cisterns may be deep- 
ened up to three feet, and for very large estates they may be made 
longer and wider. 

" A rule for the size of fermenting cisterns might be stated 
thus : One cubic foot for each bushel of cherry expected each 
day. This would be ample, and would apply to large and small 
estates. 

" On low estates with a high temperature — say from 68° to 
80° Fahrenheit — coffee is ready for washing in about thirty-six or 
forty hours after pulping ; but in some of the higher and colder 
districts, where fermenting progresses less rapidly, it may require 
as much as sixty hours. During this time no water should be 
allowed to flow in among the coffee which has been drained after 
being pulped ; it would hinder fermentation. But after the 
proper time has elapsed, and fermentation has taken place, the 
mucilage which, after pulping, adheres to the parchment skin, 
may be easily washed from it. This is done by admitting a free 
flow of water into the cistern and stirring the coffee with a wooden 
implement, similar to that used by natives in their rice fields. 



PEEPAEATION OF COFFEE FOR MARKET. 13 

It consists of a thin board, about twenty inches by five, with a 
handle about five feet long. It is worked like a rake, and in the 
washing and stirring the light coffee and skins are separated from 
the heavy and good beans, and floated into the tail cistern. Clever 
coolies soon get very expert at this separating process, retaining 
only good parchment coffee in the washing cistern, and floating 
off the light beans and skins. 

" Another kind of cistern is used on some estates that are sub- 
ject to much wet weather, and it may be referred to here. It is 
found that parchment coffee, after being washed and before being 
exposed to the sun, will remain perfectly sound and good if kept 
in water. A large cistern is therefore made for this purpose, and 
a stream of water is allowed to flow in, sufficient to keep the cof- 
fee covered, and in this way it may be kept for many days, or 
until good drying weather comes. 

"Parchment coffee should be dried with the least possible 
delay, and it ought not to be exposed to rain. Large barbecues, 
or smooth open spaces, are necessary for this purpose, so that it 
may be thinly spread over a large surface, and so exposed to the 
sun. The surface of these barbecues has in many cases been 
formed of small stones plastered over with mortar, and coated 
with a mixture of tar and resin. But latterly the more economi- 
cal practice has been only to make the ground smooth and hard, 
and over the barbecue thus easily formed to lay down coir mat- 
ting, on which the coffee is spread out. It is a recommendation 
of this plan that the coir matting can be turned into a temporary 
covering for the coffee in the event of rain suddenly coming on. 
A large store is also necessary, so that the coif ee may not be stored 
too deep on one floor. If, from want of space, too much is heaped 
together, it must be frequently turned over in order to prevent it 
from heating." 

In Brazil and Central America the drying is effected in differ- 
ent ways. By the old process the berries are spread out upon a 
stone or mortar floor and exposed to the sun until dry, care being 
taken to rake over the seeds during the day and to protect them 
from rain or sudden showers. 

A newer method employs steam. Beneath large zinc covered 
tables, with raised edges, steam pipes are run. Kegroes are en- 



14 



COFFEE. 



gaged in constantly stirring the seeds and taking them away 
when dried. By this process only a few hours are occupied in 
thoroughly drying the berries. It is also claimed that the coffee 
thus dried shows better quality than that which is sun dried on 
the terraces, as there is no chance of its being rain damao-ed. 

Different kinds of machines are used to remove the coffee- 
grains from their dry coverings. Some resemble a farming mill, 
and others are immense structures specially built for the purpose. 
In all of them the one object is sought— the securing of bi-ight, 
hard, and thoroughly clean beans. The following diagram and 




description from Herbert H. Smith's work on Brazil make clear 
the cleaning operation as carried on upon extensive plantations in 
Brazil : — 

" The dried berries are placed in the bin a. A band elevator, 
h, carries them to the ventilator c, where sticks and rubbish are 
removed and the dust fanned away. It then passes through the 
tube d to another elevator, e, which carries it to the shellery, 
where the outer and inner shells are crushed by revolving toothed 
cylinders. The grains and broken shells pass through a pipe, g, 
to the ventilator h, vv^here the shells are sifted and fanned away ; the 
unbroken nuts are separated on a sieve and passed by the pipe i back 
to the elevator <?, and so again to the sheller ; the shells and rubbish 
fall into a bin, /, from which they are removed for manure ; the 
coffee-grains fall into the pipe k, and are carried by the elevator I 
to the separator m. This separator is composed of a pair of hol- 
low revolving copper cylinders pierced with holes of different 
sizes and shapes; the coffee-grains, dropped into the cylinders, 



PREPARATION OF COFFEE FOR MARKET. 



15 



fall tlirongli these holes and are assorted by them into large and 
small, flat and ronnd grains, which pass into different bins, n, o, j). 
There still remains a portion of the fine inner covering of the 
grains, which is removed in the box q, with constant shaking, 
trituration, and fanning. Falling into the bin r, the cleaned cof- 
fee is removed and carefully picked over by hand before it is 
finally consigned to the 
sacks. The picking is 
generally done by wo- 
men, and in the manner 
depicted in the illustra- 
tion." 

In countries where 
the most primitive meth- 
ods are still in vogue, 
the coffee is very imper- 
fectly cleaned, and the 
fine inner covering ad- 
heres more or less to the 
bean, largely reducing 
its commercial value. 

While in Java I for 
the first time found a 
seemingly plausible 
method of accounting 
for what is termed in 
commerce the " male berry " coffee. This, as is well known by all 
dealers in the article, is a bean of a roundish, oval shape, and its 
merits have been highly extolled by some who claim that it is 
nuTch better than the ordinarily shaped coffee. Mr. J. W. E. de 
Sturler, the ovvmer of a large coffee plantation in the Preanger dis- 
trict, assured me that his observations had led him to believe that 
the so-called male berries are simply those berries which do not 
develop and attain the full size of the average bean ; in short, 
that they are imperfect berries ; that, while all the trees bear 
more or less of them, the older plants, which are less thrifty and 
vigorous, bear by far the larger percentage, and that, perhaps, a 
fair estimate of the average quantity of this style produced by his 




Picking over Collee. 



16 COFFEE. 

plantation was five per cent., or one-twentieth. Owing to tlie de- 
mand, however, which has been created for the " male berry " 
coffee, it often sells for ten to twenty per cent, more than the 
ordinary coffee. He thought it possible that there was something 
in the popular belief that this style possessed a higher flavor than 
the ordinary coffee ; but it was more probable that the higher 
price was due to fashion in trade, which often exhibits such strange 
vagaries. I was confirmed in this view of the matter by a con- 
versation which I had subsequently, in Ceylon, on the same sub- 
ject, with the experienced manager of the Cotchicaddy Mills, at 
Colombo. 

Having briefly considered the preparation of the bean for the 
market, I now pass to a consideration of special matters con- 
nected with its production in the coffee-growing countries, describ- 
ing the peculiarities of the different varieties of bean and how 
they reach consuming markets, together with special features of 
interest to dealers. 

Each country furnishes a coffee different in some respects from 
that coming from any other ; and again the product of each often 
differs according to the climate, soil, temperature, and cultivation 
received in the various districts of the country in which it is 
grown. It may therefore readily be seen that it requires no small 
degree of skill to enable a purchaser to judge of the quality and 
value of the different kinds. With a view to render assistance in 
this direction, I shall in succeeding chapters consider the pro- 
duct of each important producing country separately. 

In the following table are enumerated the countries contribut- 
ing to the supply of the United States, and the quantities fur- 
nished by each during the years 1878, 1879, and 1880. 



PREPARATION OF COFFEE FOR MARKET, 



17 



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CHAPTER TV. 



THE SELECTION OF THE BEAN. 



How to determine quality from the appearance of the hean is 
a question of great importance to everj interested party, from the 
export merchant at the place of production to the buyer for con- 
sumption. 

Between these two parties usually come the import merchant, 
the wholesale grocer, and the retail merchant, on whose parts re- 
spectively, care and knowledge are necessary, yet often wanting, 
to insure to the consumer a satisfactory result. 

Coffee is frequently damaged on the voyage of importation by 
dampness, which soon renders it musty ; and when the coffee-bean 
once becomes musty its delicate flavor is much injured, and no 
amount of attempted renovation can fully restore it. A greater or 
less portion of nearly every cargo is thus damaged. The renovat- 
ing process consists of opening the bags, emptying the contents out 
upon the floor of the warehouse, and skimming off, as well as may 
be, the mouldy and musty beans, which usually are those next the 
bag ; these are kept separate. If wet, they are dried, and after- 
ward are often run through a polishing machine to remove the 
mould and give them a more sightly appearance. They are then 
put upon the market and generally sold for within one or two cents 
per pound of the price of sound coffee, although the intrinsic value 
is much diminished. The portion Avhich remains after the skim- 
ming, is called " sound," and is put up in new bags and sold as 
such, although it is far from being as good as that which has 
never been damaged ; for the skimming process is not perfect, 
and some of the musty beans remain, imparting their flavor, to 
some extent, to the sound beans. This fact is lost sight of by 
many merchants, who only look for samples which show hand- 



THE SELECTION OF THE BEATT. 19 

somely in the hand, thus neglecting the far more important qual- 
ity of flavor. 

There is no item which enters into the supply of our tables, 
with which I am acquainted, unless it be butter, which is so easily 
injured in flavor as coffee, or which exhibits such a tendency to 
absorb surrounding odors. Yessels from Central and South 
America often arrive with mixed cargoes of coffee and hides, in 
which the former has been almost ruined by absorbing the smell 
of the latter. Roasting the coffee dissipates to some degree the 
" hidey " smell, yet to an expert it is very perceptible, enough 
remaining to destroy the delicate flavor of the volatile oil or 
caffeone. The same effect is produced by the foul bilge-water 
of vessels, and the extreme sensitiveness of coffee to surrounding 
odors is further demonstrated by the readiness with which roasted 
coffee absorbs the flavor of the wood when put in a pine box or bin. 
Koasted coffee should never be long kept in anything except a 
tightly closed tin box, or better yet, an air-tight glass or earthen 
jar. 

Different varieties of coffee show a great diversity of flavor, 
and even the same variety from different parts of one district will 
show like divergencies. Different seasons produce different qual- 
ities ; indeed, there are as many kinds, qualities, and shades of 
flavor of coffee as there are of tea, and in the latter these varia- 
tions, as is well known, are almost numljerless. ; 

In the review of coffee production I have indicated the Va- 
riety of kinds, qualities, and flavors which exists, and also, to some 
extent, the vicissitudes to which even the best coffee is exposed 
during the voyage of importation. From this it will be seen how 
necessary it is for dealers to exercise great caution in selecting 
their stocks. It is impossible to judge accurately of the quality and 
strength of coffee without roasting and making an infusion with 
boiling water, in a manner similar to that practised in drawing 
tea, and yet, strange as it may seem, it is not customary, even with 
the largest dealers, to judge of quality except by the general ap- 
pearance of the berry. 

Before buying a large lot, wholesale dealers sometimes roast a 
small quantity to see how it looks when roasted, but this is the 
exception rather than the rule, and by far the larger portion of 



20 COFFEE. 

all varieties of coffee are sold simply upon their appearance in tlie 
hand. This oftentimes is exceedingly deceptive, for a bright, 
large-beaned, handsome looking sample will sometimes turn out 
to be woody and comparatively flavorless ; while another that, ac- 
cording to the usual standard by which coifee is judged, would be 
rated considerably lower in price, will, when roasted, prove to be 
of very superior quality, greatly increasing in size during the 
roasting process, and developing that delicious fragrance which 
occasionally surprises and delights all lovers of a perfect cup of 
coffee. 

It is quite within the power of wholesale dealers to greatly 
improve the quality of the coffee sold by them if they will care- 
fully roast and try a portion of every considerable lot before buy- 
ing it, refusing such as do not come up to a proper standard of 
strength and fragrance, and especially avoiding lots which show 
the least trace of any musty or foreign flavor. 

To some extent in producing countries, and also at the large 
distributing points, an artificial appearance is given to the bean 
by " sweating," " polishing," or by the use of coloring matter. By 
the first-named process Savanilla and other sorts (sometimes 
Santos) are made to imitate Padang Java. Laguayra is polished 
and sold for Rio. Yery dangerous powders or mixtures are used 
to color the beans, the practice being resorted to in order to 
meet the prejudices of consumers in certain sections for a bright 
yellow, black, or olive-green colored bean. These colors are 
obtained by the use of poisonous compounds. The composi- 
tion of these mixtures respectively, as proved by chemical 
analyses, is as follows (Report Department Agriculture, 1879, 
p. 79): 

Orange Powder. — Chromate of lead ("chrome yellow"), 1 
part ; sulphate of barium (" heavy spar "), 2 parts. 

Black Powder. — Consisted wholly of burnt bones ("crude 
bone-black "). 

Olive-Green Powder. — Chromate of lead (" chrome yellow "), 
1 part ; bone-black, 3 parts ; sulphate of barium (" heavy spar "), 
3 parts. 

Both the natural and the faced berries were examined, with 
the result that every sample of the " improved " berries was found 



THE SELECTION OF THE BEAN. 



21 



to have been treated with some powder containing the same sub- 
stances as those in the above olive-green powder. 
The amounts of foreign adulterants were — 



Per cent. 

No.l 0.68 

No.2 0.19 

No. 3 0.08 



Per cent. 

No. 4 0.64 

No. 5 0.63 

No. 6 0.58 



The " uncolored " berries were what was claimed for them, 
viz., free from any adulteration. 

The Government chemist, in referring to the above, said : 

" The foolish demands of the people are the direct cause for 
the manipulation of coffee. Yet this is no reason why the na- 
tional legislature should not enact laws, and have them rigidly 
enforced, preventing the use of poisonous compounds." 

There can be but little doubt that these added coloring matters 
must prove injurious, and, probably, directly poisonous to the con- 
sumer. Especially is chromate of lead liable to be changed by 
roasting, so that its lead may be soluble in the acids of the stomach ; 
and it is well known that soluble lead salts have a decidedly poi- 
sonous action. 



CHAPTER Y. 

ROASTING THE BEAN. 

The most important of all tlie conditions necessary to be ob- 
served in the production of a cup of good coffee is the process of 
roasting the bean. The finest quality of coffee unskilfully roasted 
will give a less satisfactory result in the cup than a poor quality 
roasted in the best manner. It is no easy matter to acquire the 
skill in manipulation and accuracy of judgment necessary to roast 
coffee successfully. Among professional coffee roasters some are 
bunglers, although their lives have been spent in the occupation, 
while others seem to be peculiarly adapted to the business, and 
with much less experience uniformly turn out good work. As in 
a competitive trial of firemen for steam engines, a boy of sixteen 
obtained more revolutions of the engine with a given amount of 
fuel than the most experienced engineers, so will special adapt- 
ability for a certain work sometimes be developed where least ex- 
pected. The skilful roaster can tell when the bean has been roasted 
to the desired degree by the aroma which is carried away in the 
smoke that arises during the process of roasting. 

The revolution which has taken place in the coffee-trade of 
the United States during the last twenty years, is a striking con- 
firmation of the principle that work can be done in the best and 
cheapest manner on a large scale, where machinery is employed 
that is controlled by the best available skill. It may safely be 
said that twenty years ago there was not one pound of roasted 
coffee sold in this country, where now there are twenty. Then 
retail grocers bought and sold coffee green, and consumers roasted 
it in an iron pot or skillet over an ordinary fire. While this 
method had its advantages so far as having coffee freshly roasted 
was concerned, these advantages were heavily counterbalanced 



ROASTING THE BEAN. 23 

by tlie impossibility of obtaining uniform work from the crude 
appliances used, and a still greater obstacle was encountered in the 
lack of experience and the occasional stupidity on the part of 
persons intrusted with the work. At that time there were a few 
so-called " coffee and spice mills," whose proprietors roasted cof- 
fee for their own trade, in large cylinders turned by machinery. 
The results obtained were so satisfactory that wholesale grocers, 
in order to hold their trade, began to employ these " mills " to 
roast coffee for them, and this business has steadily increased 
until now there are coffee-roasting establishments, using steam- 
power, in every city of considerable size in this country, and the 
demand for coffee thus roasted has so increased that some of the 
larger wholesale grocery houses have found it expedient to erect 
mills especially for their own accommodation. 

The first complete apparatus for roasting and grinding coffee, 
was set up in Wooster street, ISTew York, opposite the present 
Washington square. It was brought over from England by 
James Wilde, in 1833 or 1834, and consisted of two cylinders, 
with an engine of sufficient power to run the roasters and a mill 
for the grinding. Prior to this time, a Mr. Ward roasted coffee 
for the grocers, by hand, making this his special business. Mr. 
AYithington, in Dutch street, about the same time, used horse- 
power for running his roasters. In 1835, the once famous Hope 
Mills were started in Elizabeth street, near Bleecker street. Cof- 
fee-roasting was undertaken by the proprietors on a large scale, 
four cylinders being run. These mills were burnt in 1845, after 
which the business was transferred to Tl Fulton streetj near to 
the present establishment of Mr. John BjTiner, who, I believe, 
is the oldest living representative of the coffee trade in Kew York. 
In subsequent years numerous smaller machines have been de- 
signed for the use of families and retail dealers. Almost without 
exception, however, those designed for the use of families have 
failed to give satisfaction, owing to the great difficulty of roasting 
the beans with any degree of uniformity in small quantities. 

The largest sized portable machines for the use of retail gro- 
cers have yielded somewhat better results ; still it is only now and 
then that the experience of those using them is entirely satisfactory. 
It is with difficulty that uniformly good work can be obtained, and 



24 COFFEE. 

then it is only after repeated failures, necessarily costly to the 
retailer, because, in addition to losing the coffee, his trade is 
imperilled. Oftentimes a customer, whom it has taken years to 
secure, has been lost during the experimental effort to acquire 
sufficient skill to properly roast coffee in a portable roaster. Some- 
times there will be too much, and then, again, too little fire ; the 
attention of the same person cannot always be conveniently given ; 
the turning is not usually as steady and continuous by hand as 
when done by steam-power, while it is manifestly impossible for 
a person only roasting occasionally to attain the same degree of 
skill and experience that is acquired by a fit person who makes it 
a business. 

These considerations, together with the occasional spoiling of 
a roast through carelessness or by a novice ; losses in weight by 
roasting more than is necessary ; the expense of a machine, and 
fuel, time and trouble, altogether make it doubtful whether it will 
pay the average retail grocer to undertake this service himself. 
It must also be borne in mind that the result of his work is liable 
to come into competition with that of adepts in the art. There 
may be cases where grocers are so far from any available market 
that they cannot obtain regular and frequent supplies of roasted 
coffee from the wholesale dealer, and in such cases they will, un- 
doubtedly, find it better to undertake the roasting of coffee sold by 
them, than to trust to the care and attention of the average con- 
sumer, to whom it is an impossibility, with the facilities at command, 
to roast properly, and who, nevertheless, is very apt, when the result 
is unsatisfactory, to attribute the failure to the poor quality of the 
coffee furnished. Where parties attempt to roast their own coffee, 
their object should be to produce a rich chestnut-brown; for 
making " black " or French coffee, the bean should be roasted 
higher than usual, but the first mentioned color will best suit the 
majority of palates. As a rule, it will not pay consumers to roast 
their own coffee where they are so situated that they can procure 
frequent supplies of the roasted article from the retail dealer; 
and it will be found that retail dealers, as a rule, will in turn find 
it to their interest to have their supplies roasted by professional 
roasters, whose constant practice enables them, on the whole, to 
turn out the best article. We believe that this policy is the most 



EOASTING THE BEAN. 25 

economical for retailers, as the use of machinery and the division 
of labor into specialties in this, as in many other branches of 
trade, effects a far greater saving than is possible by individual 
effort when not thus organized. 

Dealers should buy their roasted coffee in small quantities, 
and this, with our extended modern facilities of communication 
and transportation, is quite feasible. A supply sufficient to last a 
week or ten days is enough to buy at a time, and if the dealer is 
situated close to the " mill " or wholesale grocer, let him purchase 
but half that quantity. Koasted coffee loses in quality and aroma 
from the moment it leaves the roaster ; hence it should be kept in 
tightly closed receptacles (never in a wooden box or bin possessing 
any odor, for, as remarked elsewhere, it is peculiarly susceptible 
to surroirading odors) ; if exposed to the air its delicate f i-agrance 
is rapidly dissipated. The above remarks also apply to consumers, 
who will find that small and frequent purchases of freshly roasted 
coffee give better satisfaction than larger quantities purchased less 
frequently, and whatever quantity is purchased, it should be kept 
in a glass or earthen jar, or a tightly closed tin canister. Recently, 
roasted coffee packed in one-pound papers, has come into favor 
with consumers, the reason for this doubtless beins that large 
dealers in coffee, possessing a thorough knowledge of the charac- 
teristics of coffee produced in the various countries, and the fla- 
vors which harmonize in blending, have succeeded in producing 
grades adapted to the tastes of different sections where coffee is 
largely consumed, and, doing business on a large scale, have been 
able to secure the greatest uniformity of result, and consequently, 
the utmost satisfaction to the consumer. Through being tightly 
sealed in wrappers while fresh from the roaster, the aroma is the 
more effectually preserved, while, in some instances, a preserv- 
ative gloss is added with this object in view. Dealers prefer this 
package coffee because there is no loss in weight, and the time 
and labor of weighing and putting up are saved ; a child can hand 
out a package of coffee where a man would otherwise have to be 
employed, and the consumer also has that guarantee of correct 
weight and uniformity of quality afforded by the transaction of 
business on a large scale, where everything is reduced to an exact 
system. 



26 COFFEE. 

The illustration upon tlie opposite page exhibits the interior 
of a large roasting establishment, and shows the manner of filling 
and emptying the cylinders, and the process of cooling the coffee. 
The perforated iron cylinders are built large enough to hold three 
hundred pounds of coffee, but not more than two hundred pounds 
are placed at one time in each. It will be seen from the engraving 
that the cylinder may be removed from over the fire upon the 
shaft upon which it revolves, which shaft is made to extend from 
the brick frame-work which protects the fire, far enough to per- 
mit of the cylinder being readily filled and emptied. In some 
roasting establishments the cylinders are so arranged that they 
cannot be removed from over the fire, which feature is deemed ob- 
jectionable by the best roasters, as, in case of any accident to the 
machinery the coffee could not be quickly enough removed. This 
arrangement also subjects the empty cylinder to the influence of 
a strong heat after the coffee is removed and before a new lot can 
take its place, the effect of which is to "speck" the coffee unless 
great care is exercised. 

Upon an average, about forty-five minutes are required to roast 
the berry, which, in addition to the time taken to fill and empty 
the cylinder and to cool and re-sack the coffee — makes the time 
occupied by the entire process about one hour. 

The Mocha and other small bean coffees will roast in a little 
less time than Java and other large varieties. The phrase " little 
less time" is full of significance to the professional roaster, for 
the keeping of the coffee over the fire from thirty to sixty seconds 
longer than is necessary will sometimes ruin the roast. For the 
I^ew England trade a light roast is required, and for Western, a 
dark, or pretty full roast. What are termed white, dead, sour, or 
black beans injure the roast, in fact a very small quantity of sour 
beans present in a lot of coffee will greatly damage it. A well 
seasoned berry that is solid and oily, and from one to two years 
old, makes the finest roast. The white beans which are so often 
seen in roasted coffee are from imperfect or immature berries, 
analagous to the miniature kernel of corn which is often found at 
one end of the cob. White beans being destitute of caffeone con- 
taining the aroma are but little changed in color during the 
process of roasting, and are comparatively destitute of flavor. 



EOASTING THE BEAIS-. 27 

Shrivelled coffee, or that having a shrunken appearance, will not, 
as a rule, roast nicely, although some such lots will occasionally 
turn out a bright, handsome roast. When the berry has been 
sufficiently roasted and the cylinder withdrawn from the tire, the 
operator throws in a small quantity of cold water. The rapid 
vaporizing of the water cariies off the heat, and the changes 
wrought during this part of the process cause the berry to swell, 
thus giving it a much more sightly and attractive appearance. 
The addition of water does not, as might be supposed, add to the 
weight of the coffee, for the heat is so intense as to immediately 
convert the water into steam, which readily escapes. The coffee, 
after being removed to the cylinder, is placed in the cooler, a 
large box having a heavy wire bottom through which currents of 
air are forced, soon reducing the temperature so that it can be 
handled. When cooled it is re-sacked, or put into other packages, 
and is then ready for shipment. 

The average loss of weight in the process of roasting coffee is 
reckoned at sixteen per cent., or sixteen pounds upon every one 
hundred pounds, which accounts for the higher price of roasted 
coffee as compared with green. This loss sometimes runs as low 
as fourteen and one-half per cent., and again as high as seventeen 
per cent., and in exceptional cases where coffee has been roasted 
that was very green, and grown in places not far distant, it has 
reached twenty to twenty-two per cent. The temperature and 
season of the year exert some influence, but the difference in loss 
depends more upon the age and consequent dryness of the coffee 
than on anything else. The difference in loss made between a light 
and a dark roast will not usually average over one per cent. It 
is the custom not to roast as high during the summer as in the 
winter, because the higher the roast the greater is the tendency 
to sweat, the high temperature of the summer months causing 
the oil to exude; this soon becomes sour or rancid, and injures 
the flavor of the coffee. 

We present a table of losses made in roasting, compiled from 
the record of one establishment in New York. During one 
month a total of 173,056 pounds of all kinds of green coffee roasted 
showed a loss of 27,385 pounds, or .1582 per cent. 



28 



COFFEE. 





Java 
best. 


Java 
medium. 


Mara- 
caibo 
best. 


Mara- 
caibo 
good. 


Mara- 
caibo 
fair. 


Rio 
best. 


Rio 
good. 


Rio 
fair. 


Mocha. 


January 

February .... 

March 

April 

May 

June 


.1052 
.163 
.16^5 
.15^5 

.16='« 
.15^5 




1666 
1628 

IG'o 
175 

1729 

17.-2 




1669 
163 
16« 

15^« 

1588 

15" 


.15 

.15'* 
.165 
.149^ 
.15«3 
.148» 




14' 
1410 

1485 

15" 

1533 


.14'2 

.1439 

.1480 

.13^' 
.13«5 
.13«5 


.14'" 
.14^» 
.13« 
.14'-' 
.13*0 
.13^' 




1338 
1260 
1116 

1362 

1399 
1309 




1412 
14" 

14" 

15' 

1566 

1419 



It will be noted that Rio loses about one per cent, less than 
Java or Maracaibo, which we believe can be accounted for upon 
the ground that the Rio bean is more solid than the Sumatra or 
Java berry, or even the Maracaibo bean, the latter sorts being 
larger and more spongy than the Brazilian product. It wiU be 
noted also that an allowance of sixteen per cent, will, as a rule, 
cover all the loss in roasting. The usual charge for roasting 
coffee for the trade is from one-half to three-fourths of a cent per 
pound. Since means of communication from coffee-growing 
countries have grown more rapid, coffee has arrived in our 
markets much greener than formerly, and lacking in that mel- 
lowness which is so highly prized by connoisseurs. 

As confirmatory of the preceding remarks, based upon a long 
experience gained in preparing and distributing roasted coffee, the 
following extract from a report of the late celebrated chemist, 
Baron Von Liebig, will be found interesting : — 

"The chief operation is the roasting. On this depends the 
good quality of the coffee. In reality the berries should only be 
roasted until they have lost their horny condition, so that they 
may be ground, or, as it is done in the East, pounded to a fine 
powder. 

" Coffee contains a crystalline substance named caffeine or 
theine, because it is also a component part of tea. This matter is 
volatile, and every care must be taken to retain it in the coffee. 
For this purpose the berries should be roasted till they are of a 
pale brown color ; in those which are too dark, there is no caf- 
feine ; if they are black, the essential parts of the berries are en- 
tirely destroyed, and the beverage prepared from these does not 
deserve the name of coffee. 



ROASTING THE BEAI>f. 29 

" The berries of coffee once roasted lose every hour somewhat 
of their aroma, in consequence of the influence of the oxygen of 
the air, which, owing to the porosity of the roasted berries, can 
easily penetrate. This pernicious change may best be avoided by 
strewing over the berries when the roasting is completed, and 
while the vessel in which it has been done is still hot, some 
pow^dered white or brown sugar (half-an-ounce to one pound of 
coffee is sufficient). The sugar melts immediately, and by well 
shaking or turning the roaster quickly, it spreads over all the 
berries, and gives each one a fine glaze, impervious to the atmos- 
phere. They have then a shining appearance, as though covered 
with a varnish, and they in consequence lose their smell entirely, 
which, however, returns in a high degree as soon as they are 
ground. After this operation they are to be shaken out rapidly 
from the roaster and spread on a cold plate of iron, so that they 
may cool as soon as possible. If the hot berries are allowed to 
remain heaped together, they begin to sweat, and when the quan- 
tity is large, the heating process, by the influence of air, increases 
to such a degree that at last they take fire spontaneously. The 
roasted and glazed berries should be kept in a dry place, because 
the covering of sugar attracts moisture. 

" If the raw berries are boiled in water, from twenty-three to 
twenty-four per cent, of soluble matter is extracted. On being 
roasted till they assume a pale chestnut color, they lose from 
fifteen to sixteen per cent., and the extract obtained from these by 
means of boiling water is twenty to twenty-one per cent, of the 
weight of the unroasted berries. The loss in weight of the ex- 
tract is much larger when the roasting process is carried on till 
the color of the berries is dark brown or black. At the same 
time that the berries lose in weight by roasting, they gain in 
volume by swelling ; one hundred volumes of green berries give, 
after roasting, a volume of one hundred and fifty to one hundred 
and sixty ; or two pint measures of imroasted berries give three 
pints when roasted." 



CHAPTER YI. 

GKINDIKG THE COFFEE, OR GKINDING, BLENDING AND MIXING 

COFFEE, 

Simple as it may seem, the process of grinding the roasted 
bean is one that requires considerable attention. If ground too 
coarsely, the coffee requires protracted boiling to extract its 
strength, and much boiling is fatal to a good cup of coffee. While 
one may grind too finely, the mistake of grinding too coarsely is 
that most frequently made. Just to what degree of fineness it 
should be ground depends somewhat upon the manner of making 
the coffee. If any of the filtering coffee-pots are used the grinding 
should be very fine, in order that the strength may more readily 
be exhausted by the water simply passing through ; but where 
boiled for ten or fifteen minutes, as is most frequently the case, 
the coffee should be ground so that the larger particles are about 
the size of pin-heads. 

Every family should own a small coffee-mill and grind their 
own coffee, grinding it just as required for each meal, and the 
less time that elapses after grinding until the coffee is in the pot 
the better. The aroma of coffee passes off rapidly enough after 
being roasted, but still more quickly after being ground, hence the 
necessity for grinding it only for immediate use. If during wet 
weather the beans become damp and tough, so that they do not 
rattle when stirred, warm them up in a clean pot or skillet before 
grinding, stirring them meanwhile — so as not to scorch them — • 
and thus drive off the moisture, develop their flavor and make 
them grind better. Most retail grocers keep a large coffee-mill 
and when requested will grind coffee for those customers who do 
not find it convenient to grind it at home; the latter method, 
however, is the best, as it gives the customer fresher ground coffee 



GRINDITTG THE COFFEE. 31 

and a closer control as regards fine or coarse grinding. When 
dependent upon the store for ground coffee it is best not to buy 
at one time more than a supply adequate for two or three days' 
consumption. Another consideration in favor of consumers buy- 
ing coffee in the bean is that there can be no suspicion of adulter- 
ation with chicory, ground peas or other substances, with which 
grocers are sometimes unjustly charged, and the satisfaction is 
thus greater on all sides. 

As individual tastes differ, it frequently occurs that no single 
variety of coffee exactly suits certain consumers, and therefore 
they seek to gratify their palate by either blending two sorts or 
mixing with one variety some vegetable substance. While some 
kinds of coffee possess a rich aroma they do not give to the infu- 
sion that " body " wliich is requisite to make the perfect cup of 
coffee. It is a very common practice to blend Java and Maracaibo 
in the proportion of eighty pounds of the former to twenty pounds 
of the latter, selling the mixture for straight Java. The addition of 
fifteen to twenty per cent, of Marcaibo to Padang coffee undoubt- 
edly improves the latter for the majority of those who are fond of 
Old Government Java, as it lends to the Java the essential quality 
which is lacking. 

Another popular blend is to take one-third Mocha and mix with 
two-thirds of fine old Mandheling Java, taking care that the two 
kinds have been roasted separately. Others dislike either of the 
above blends, and choose a mixture of Java and Rio. ]^o definite 
rule can be given for combining two kinds of coffee together. 
The dealer should study the requirements of his trade, observing 
its peculiarities, and experiment until he is certain that he has 
found a combination that exactly meets certain wants, and once 
found he should adhere to the formula, being careful always to 
select as nearly as possible the same grade of coffee in the primary 
market. If conscientious in this, low prices and bargains will 
never be an inducement to take hold of some other variety which 
some anxious seller is sure possesses drinking qualities fully equal 
to that which he has been using. For mixed or adulterated coffee 
I have no liking. It has always been a mystery to me how persona 
who profess to be lovers of good coffee can satisfy their appetite 
with a decoction made of coffee and chicory, or coffee and various 



32 COFFEE. 

known and imlmown compounds wliicli have neither the flavor 
nor the nutritious and stimulating properties of pure coffee. I 
recognize, however, the fact that the best of the mixtures do 
meet the taste of thousands. At the same time I am glad to re- 
cord that the practice of requiring the grocer to grind coffee in 
the presence of the purchaser has very largely reduced the sale of 
mixed or adulterated coffee. 

It may be that a time will again come similar to that of our 
civil war, when the scarcity and high price of coffee will make it 
desirable to use substitutes for coffee, and therefore I give here 
several formulas for mixing coffee that have stood the test of 
years : — 

"No. 1. — iO pounds O. G. Java, 20 pounds Maracaibo, 25 
pounds of roasted rye mixture, 15 pounds chicory. 

ISTo. 2. — 50 pounds of Maracaibo, 30 pounds of roasted rye 
mixture, 20 pounds of chicory. 

No. 3. — 60 pounds of llio, 20 pounds of roasted rye mixture, 
20 pounds of chicory. 

No. 4. — iO pounds of Kio, 40 pounds of roasted rye mixture, 
20 poimds of chicory. 

The above formulas are sufficient to show how to mix ground 
coffee in a manner that will furnish a good-flavored infusion. 
The proportions may be altered at pleasure, always taking care to 
have the rye mixture in excess of the chicory. During the war 
and since, mixtures have found ready sale that had not over five 
to ten pounds of pure coffee to every one hundred. The ingre- 
dients should be thoroughly mixed and ground together, the dry 
and dusty rye mixture absorbing the moisture of the chicory, and 
thus preventing the mill from becoming clogged. 



CHAPTER yil. 



MAKING THE COFFEE. 



Foe tills there are many recipes, and farther on will be found for- 
mulas for making Turkish coffee as made at Constantinople, French 
coffee as made in Paris, and the celebrated coffee of the Yienna 
cafes ; also various methods in vogue in different coffee-producing 
countries, for all of which there are a certain number of admirers. 
The first consideration has been to provide a recipe adapted to 
the tastes of the great mass of the American people, and also to 
the facilities usually at command, while economizing material. 
With these conditions in mind I have ignored many so-called 
" improved " or " patent " coffee-pots, which, within my own 
knowledge, have yielded good results, but the expense of which, 
together with the fact that, as a rule, they do not utilize the full 
strength of the bean, makes them undesirable for many persons. 
The following recipe will be found plain, convenient, good, and 
economical, with the additional good feature that it may be 
slightly varied in regard to the quantit}'' of coffee used, so that 
those who prefer a greater or less strength may be suited : I pre- 
sent it as 

THE TIIURBER RECIPE. 

Grind moderately fine a large cup or small bowl of coffee ; 
break into it one egg with shell ; mix well, adding enough cold 
water to thoroughly wet the grounds ; upon this pour one pint of 
boiling water : let it boil slowly for ten to fifteen minutes, accord- 
ing to the variety of coffee used and the fineness to which it is 
ground. Let it stand three minutes to settle, then pour through 
a fine wire-sieve into a warm coffee-pot ; this will make enough 
for four persons. At table, first put the sugar into the cup, then 
3 



34 COFFEE. 

fill half -full of boiling milk, add yonr coffee, and you have a de- 
licious beverage that will be a revelation to many poor mortals 
who have an indistinct remembrance of, and an intense longing 
for, an ideal cup of coifee. If cream can be procured so much 
the better, and in that case boiling water can be added either in 
the pot or cup to make up for the space occupied by the milk 
as above ; or condensed milk will be found a good substitute for 
cream. 

In order to emphasize some of the important points previously 
mentioned, as well as those in the above recipe, I shall recall 
points before noticed. Endeavor to have fresh roasted coffee, 
and, where practicable, grind it yourself. Xever use cold milk, 
as coffee to be good must be hot ; cream or condensed milk, how- 
ever, may be used cold, owing to the much smaller quantity re- 
quired, and by most persons one or the other will be preferred to 
milk. In cold weather rinse out the coffee-cups with hot water 
just before pouring out the coffee. 

Coffee should be served as soon as made, for it rapidly deteri- 
orates if left stewing upon the stove. This is one of the principal 
reasons why the coffee served at hotels and restaurants is so often 
of poor quality. It is not made often enough, and is usually kept 
simmering in a copper-boiler, which alone is sufficient to spoil the 
best coffee ever growTi. If the coffee lacks clearness, and when 
milk is added turns dark, it is an indication that it is stale or the 
milk sour. Freshly made coffee ought to have a clear, amber- 
brown color, which milk will render lighter instead of darker. 
When coffee is served immediately after making it does not 
greatly matter in what kind of vessel it is boiled ; a common tin 
coffee-pot will do, although one made of block tin is to be pre- 
ferred. It should be served in an earthenware or porcelain cof- 
fee-pot, either being much better than nickel or silver-plated, 
and, in order that no heat may be lost, the vessel should be rinsed 
with hot water before the coffee is turned into it from that in 
which it is made. Some connoisseurs prefer an earthen pot in 
which to prepare it, and advocate placing the coffee in a fine linen 
bag, allowing it to simmer, not boil, for ten or fifteen minutes. 

I now pass to the consideration of modes of making and serv- 
ing coffee in foreign countries. Many of the recipes and much 



TURKISH COFFEE. 35 

of the information is the result of my own personal investigation 
during a trip around the world, in the course of which particular 
attention was given to the subject of coffee, both in producing 
and consuming countries. Other data have been received from 
reliable correspondents or occasionally borrowed from trustworthy 
sources. 

TURKISH COFFEE. 

Everybody has heard of Turkish coffee. "While in Constanti- 
nople I investigated the mysteries of that far-famed luxury. In 
the numerous coffee-houses of the Moslem capital, when a person 
calls for a cup of coffee it is specially made for him. Every cof- 
fee-house has a number of long-handled little brass coffee-pots, 
made to hold one, two, or more cups, as the ease may be. They 
are smaller at the top than at the bottom and are fitted with a 
little grooved spout, but have no cover. 

"VYlien a cup of coffee is wanted, the requisite amount of finely 
powdered coffee is measured into one of these little coffee-pots ; 
water enough to fill the pot is poured in, and it is then set upon live 
coals, until it heats up to just the boiling point. It is then, with- 
out straining or otherwise settling the grounds, poured out into 
a tiny cup, and this is Turkish coffee. As may be supposed, it is 
thick, muddy, and the lower half of the cup composed principally 
of grounds ; but the flavor is good, and I noticed that most Turks 
swallowed the grounds with the same relish that they showed for 
the thinner part of the beverage. The Turks never use milk with 
their coffee ; to them the mixture would be an abomination. In 
Constantinople the coffee is generally ground in a mill, but in 
many places it is powdered with a mortar and pestle ; in either 
case, it is almost as fine as flour — a condition which, I suppose, is 
necessary to get the strength of the coffee with the little boiling 
wdiich they give it. The coffee used is mostly from India and 
Ceylon, although a considerable quantity of Arabian coffee is 
consumed. I am convinced that the reputation of Turkish coffee 
is chiefly due to the fact that great care is exercised in roasting 
the coffee, and not more than twenty-four hours' supply is roasted 
or purchased at one time. 

Coffee is consumed by all classes, at all hours, and on all sorts 



36 COFFEE. 

of occasions. The little berry is indeed a very important factor 
in Turkish society. JSTothiDg is done without it ; no business dis- 
cussed, no contract made, no visits and civilities exchanged with- 
out the aromatic cup and the accompanying chibouque or 
narghileh. If a purchaser enters a bazaar to price a shawl or a 
carpet, coffee is brought to him. If a person calls at another's 
house, coffee with the inseparable tobacco must greet the new- 
comer. There can be no welcome without it, and none but words 
and forms of general etiquette take place until this article has 
been served all round. At parting, coffee must still be present 
and speed the guest on his way. We are told of beggars clamoring 
for money to buy, not bread, as with our mendicants, but coffee. 

To minister to this universal demand, coffee-houses abound in 
all Turkish cities. In Smyrna and in Constantinople, they are as 
numerous as the bar-rooms in American cities. They are gen- 
erally small, often consisting of but one room, opening to the 
street or the bazaar, with a divan around three sides and carpets 
on the floor, where grave Turks sit cross-legged and may be seen 
from morn till eve alternately sipping the favorite liquid and 
puffing at the flexible-stemmed narghileh, or the long chibouque. 
I am inclined to think that the Turkish coffee-house, as it looms 
up in the mind's eye of many who have not had ocular evidence 
of the reality, is a rather overdrawn picture ; and, as we must go 
to London or Paris to enjoy the luxuries of a perfect Turkish 
bath, so it is not imlikely that only in the descriptions by imagina- 
tive writers shall we readily find the genuine, original, old 
Turkish coffee-house with its " tesselated pavement," "sparkling 
fountains," " dark and shady cypress," and the general dazzle of 
decorations some of us have read about. 

Coffee is made and consumed in essentially the same way in 
Egypt and Arabia as in Turkey. Cairo is proverbial for the 
number of its coffee-houses, mostly establishments of small size, 
and of rather uninviting appearance to the foreigner. 

The traveller who puts up at the large European hotels in 
Constantinople, Cairo, and Alexandria, is given coffee made d la 
Turque, with the grounds in the cup, but sweetened to accommo- 
date his heretical Christian notions. The sugar is placed in the 
coffee-pot with the coffee, and they are boiled together. 



TURKISH COFFEE. 37 

In Greece, also, I noticed that the coffee one found at the cafes, 
especially in the eastern islands, was prepared Turkish fashion, 
and the narghileh stood ever ready-filled, awaiting the bidding of 
the customer. The Greek coffee-house, however, has chairs and 
tables, and by its size, appearance, and general stage of evolu- 
tion, approaches much nearer the cafes of Western Europe than 
the Mohammedan establishments. A peculiar and picturesque 
feature of the Greek cafes is their frequent outdoor development, 
in the shape of numerous small tables, which sometimes cover an 
entire public square. There the modern Hellene seeks the cool 
of evening in summer, or suns himself in winter, while taking his 
coffee and enjoying the light of his brilliant skies, of which he is 
still so proud. 

" Eternal summer gilds them yet, 
But all except their sun is set." 

There the stranger, on pulling out his purse to pay for the 
cup he has consumed, may find, as it happened to me once, that 
it is already settled for, Greek hospitality having preceded him 
in this. 

From the coffee-houses of Stamboul to the cafes of Paris is a 
great leap. We are here altogether in a new school of coffee- 
making and coffee-drinking. If the cup of coffee which is handed 
to you on the shores of the Bosphorus may be considered the 
general type of the beverage in Eastern lands, it is perhaps equally 
true that the manner in which coffee is used in the French capi- 
tal prevails more or less over the rest of the Western world. The 
cafe an lait and the cafe, noir are to be found evei-ywhere among 
the Christian nations of both hemispheres. There are, of course, 
different methods for their preparation, which I shall notice in 
the course of my investigations. 

The reader may perhaps remember the famous axioms which 
Brillat Savarin lays down in his " Physiologic du Gout : " 

" A beast gorges itself. 

"Man eats. 

"The man of taste alone knows how to eat." 

Another French writer, a lover of coffee, formulates the fol- 
lowing paraphrase : 



88 COFFEE. 

" The common run of mankind take coffee. 

" A few amatem's know how to take coffee. 

" The man of taste alone knows how to take coffee and appre- 
ciate its poetic aroma." 

As might be expected from the spirit which has prompted 
these wise and witty sayings, the art of coffee-making, as well as 
that of general cookery, has received profound attention in France, 
that classical land of good things for the inner man. While there, 
I elicited from a " cordon-bleu " of Paris, the following recipes, 
with which I am happy to favor my readers. 

FRENCH RECIPES. 

First, to make black coffee — " cafe noir : " 

For one cup, grind two tablespoonfuls of coffee, which pack 
solidly in the coffee-pot (the regular French filtering pattern) ; 
then pour boiling water, passing it twice or thrice through the 
coffee-pot. 

The same recipe applies to the preparation of cafe, an lait, 
which is merely black coffee to which milk is added in quantity 
to suit the individual taste, the proportion being generally three 
parts of milk to one of coffee. 

The French, as is well known, often mix chicory with their 
coffee, mostly when taken in the form of cafe au lait. The recipe 
is then as follows : 

For one cup, grind coffee enough to make two tablespoonfuls, 
mix half a tablespoonful of chicory, en semoule (in powder). 
After thoroughly mixing, pour boiling water and pass twice 
through coffee-pot. 

In many French families the grounds that remain in the cof- 
fee-pot are utilized, for economy's sake. Hot water is poured 
over them, and, after passing through, is stored in a bottle, and 
used the next time instead of simply water. This is said to be the 
manner of making the best French coffee. 

Some French coffee artists maintain that the roasting is best 
done at home, as no doubt it well may be in such knowing hands. 
Sometimes a simple iron pan is used for the purpose, but great 
care must then be taken to keep constantly agitating the berries 



FRENCH EECIPES. 39 

with a wooden knife or spatula, bringing the operation to an 
end as soon as the berries have assumed a light brown color. 
A single burnt berry would impair the aroma. Use no butter 
nor lard during the process. 

Before grinding, the roasted berries are put on a metallic plate, 
which is placed on the stove and heated until the aroma of the 
coffee, developed by the operation, perfumes the room. Then 
grind in the ordinary mill and make according to the above recipe. 

In some of the most renowned of French cafes a mixture of 
different varieties of the berry is often resorted to — Mocha, Java, 
Martinique, Guadaloupe, or East India being generally used to- 
gether in carefully ascertained proportions. The result is a cup 
which, for its felicitous combination of strength, aroma, round- 
ness, and delicacy, is prized by the French epicure as a product 
of the highest art. 

There is, perhaps, no more characteristic feature of Paris than 
its cafes. They line all the boulevards and abound in all the 
principal streets, with their rows of chairs and tables on the side- 
walk, and their large plate-glass windows brilliantly lighted at 
night, through which extends the vista of the great salon (or nifiin 
room), with its crowd of customers, its ornamented walls, large 
mirrors, and general gilding and decoration in the gay but seldom 
gaudy French style. Through the maze of chairs and tables wait- 
ers with the inevitable whiskers and long white aprons glide about, 
tray in hand, attending to the groups of well-behaved liahitues^ 
while the dame de com/ptoir, sitting on a raised platform in a sort 
of compromise between a box and a th?-one, presides majestically 
over the scene, computes Vaddition., gives change^ and receives 
and returns the courteous salutation of every one who enters or 
who leaves. 

Coffee, in the vocabulary of the places, may be called for in 
the shape of a "demi-tasse," a "capucin," or a "mazagran." 
The " demi-tasse " is merely a small cup of black coffee, to which 
the customer occasionally adds " cognac," " kirsch," or some other 
liqueur. When the " demi-tasse " is taken with a " petit verre " 
(meaning a little glass of liqueur), it is sometimes denominated a 
"gloria." The "capucin," which, however, is a term seldom 
used, is merely another name for " cafe au lait," but served in a 



40 COFFEE. 

glass ; while a " mazagran " is coffee taken with water instead of 
milk. The coffee, which is exactly the same as that of the " demi- 
tasse," is served in a tall, narrow glass, and a decanter of cold 
water is brought along with it ; the customer does the mixing 
himself. It is said that, after some glorious achievement or other 
in Africa, near the city of Mazagran, neither milk nor brandy 
being forthcoming, the French soldiers were compelled to use water 
with their coffee — hence the drink and its name. The " demi- 
tasse" costs generally from thirty-five to forty-five centimes (from 
seven to nine cents), with a " pourboire " of ten centimes (two 
cents) to the waiter. 

It is a curious and endless study for a foreigner to observe the 
life at the cafes — either at the Grand Caf^ and the Cafe de la 
Paix, under the Grand Hotel, on the Boulevard des Capucines, 
the chief rendezvous of the fashionable floating population ; or at 
the Cafe de Madrid, on the Boulevard Montmartre, where lawyers, 
journalists, and Bohemians most do congregate ; or at the Cafe du 
Helder, chiefly patronized by artists, students of the military 
schools, officers, etc. ; or at the Cafes Riche and Gretry, where he 
will hear no end of talk about the Bourse and the "cours des 
valeurs ; " or at the Grand Cafe Parisien, near the Chateau d'Eau, 
the largest of all these establishments, although not the finest; 
or, indeed, at any of the thousand and one cafes scattered all 
over the gay metropolis, and which go so far towards giving it its 
peculiar physiognomy. It has been well remarked that Paris 
without cafes would be a landscape without water, a bride without 
a veil, a thing incomplete and disfigured. The cafe is indispens- 
able to the Frenchman, and especially to the Parisian. He may 
submit to having some of his liberties curtailed, even to seeing his 
favorite newspaper suppressed by the authorities ; but if govern- 
ment should lay hand on the Arch of his most cherished associa- 
tions and affections, he would die fighting in its defence. Life 
without the cafe would be a mockery to him. It is there that, in 
the morning, he often takes his first breakfast, consisting of a 
large cup of " cafe au lait " with a crisp rusk of bread, and perhaps a 
little butter. There he may possibly return for his second break- 
fast, the mid-day meal. To the cafe he will certainly apply again 
for an appetizer before dinner, or, it may be after the repast, for 



FRENCH EECIPES. 41 

liis demi-tass§ of black coffee to assist his digestion, clear the 
fumes of the claret, and give additional zest to the enjoyment of 
his cigar. And the cafe may see him once more, after the per- 
formance is over at the theatre, if his stomach hints at a little 
cold meat, or beer, etc. At any time during the day the slightest 
inducement will cause him to take a seat at one of the tempting 
little tables ; if he meets a friend, it is the best place to converse ; 
if the weather is fine and people crowd the boulevards, it is the 
very best point of observation. If it rains, no better refuge than 
the cheerful hall. If he has no friend, does not care to look at 
the promenaders, knows not precisely what to do, whither could 
he go, indeed, but to the cafe, where he will find newspapers, and 
life, and comfort. Such at least were the reasonings with which 
I could not help crediting the crowds of customers at whom I 
marvelled, as I passed cafe after cafe in full bloom and activity 
at almost any hour of the day or night. 

The cafe does not confine itself to the serving of coffee. It 
represents, in reality, a compound idea, a happy combination of 
the coffee-house properly so-called, the restaurant, the confec- 
tionery or ice-cream saloon, and the drinking saloon, or wine- 
room. You may always obtain there breakfast and other light 
meals. Besides the extract of the tropical berry, liquors, wines, 
beer, and drinks of all sorts are also dispensed. None, however, 
of the more or less disreputable and vulgar associations which the 
" saloon " calls up in our minds, attach to the cafe. It is, in every 
sense, proper, respectable. Perfect order, urbanity, and good 
manners prevail generally. Everybody goes to the cafe ; ladies 
will be seen there. True, they may avoid some of the establish- 
ments on the boulevard, where the " demi-monde " may, perhaps, 
be too fond of airing extraordinary toilettes ; but none will disdain 
to stop for a tutti-frutti at the Cafe Neapolitain, or at Tortoni's 
for one of the famous ices which that renowned cafe furnishes. 
In the interior of most of the first-class cafes smoking is only 
allowed in the evening. On the whole, the cafe is a genial and 
not unhealthy factor in French life, for it has civilized drinking, 
and relegated intemperance to the "brasseries," the wine-shops, 
and the " guinguettes " frequented by the workingmen in the 
poorer quarters of the city. 



42 COFFEE. 

The correspondent of an American periodical thus comments 
on the general character of the Paris cafes : 

" Alimentary, and not literary, is the modern cafe. Times are 
so changed since Yoltaire, Diderot, and the rest sang and shouted 
in the Cafe Procope — jested, reasoned, and made themselves im- 
mortal there — there are so many people who have the means to 
frequent cafes, and there is such an immense floating population, 
eager, curious, and bent on sight-seeing, that no clique can live. 
Its precincts, no matter how hallowed, are invaded by the leering 
•mob and His many-headed Majesty the Crowd. Still, certain 
cafes are able to boast a clientele, with the military, journalistic, 
artistic, or commercial element in preponderating force — cafes 
where the stockbrokers, students, or officers go — but the old his- 
toric cafe, the cafe of tradition, where you were sure to find some 
celebrity on exhibition — a first-class poet, or a philosopher — may 
be said to be defunct." 

If the cafe of tradition has been transformed in France, it has 
disappeared altogether in England. Of the old coffee-houses, of 
which we have read so much, with which the names of Pope, Ad- 
dison, Steele, Dryden, Johnson, and so many other poets, writers, 
and public men, stand indissolubly connected in our minds, and 
which were all in full stir and activity in the time of Queen 
Anne, nothing remains at the present day ; for who would ven- 
ture to recognize them in the solemnly magnificent clubs of Pail- 
Mall? The English, from the point of view of coffee, have rather 
fallen into bad ways, and tea has far outstripped the Arabian 
berry in their affections. The term " coffee-house " in England has 
become hardly more than nominal, the restaurant being the prin- 
cipal feature, and one hears orders given for " a pint of bitter " or 
'"arf and 'arf " much more frequently than for a cup of coffee. 

Still, that guiding-star of gastronomic England, M. Soyer, in 
his all comprehensive solicitude for the human stomach, could not 
overlook coffee. I respectfully transcribe into these pages the 
directions of the master : 

M. soyer's method. 

"Put two ounces of ground coffee in a stewpan, which set 
upon the fire, stirring the coffee round with a spoon until quite 



M. soyer's method. 43 

hot ; then pour over a pint of boiling water ; cover over closely 
for five minutes : pass it through a cloth, warm again, and serve." 

With the sanction of such a name, the above may be looked 
upon as embodying the most approved English recipe, although I 
believe M. Soyer was French by birth and education. Of its 
general observance, however, I have strong doubts, for England 
is certainly not the country where the ideal cup of coffee is found. 
Indeed, I give it as my experience that, as a rule, the English do 
not know how to make coffee ; and even in the very best hotels 
and restaurants, a sloppy mixture is served which compares very 
unfavorably with that to be obtained in establishments of the 
same grade in Paris, Vienna, or New York. 

Of all the outrageous travesties upon good coffee, however, 
the slops dignified by that name on the English steam lines ply- 
ing between New York and Liverpool are the worst. I have 
crossed on the Cunard, White Star and Inman boats, and all of 
these noble lines, which vie with each other in speed, safety and 
seamanship seem to compete as strongly in the badness of their 
coffee. When one is wrestling with the pangs of sea-sickness the 
memory of the fragrant, refreshing and grateful beverage which 
cheers the home breakfast-table comes strongly to mind, but oh ! 
what a disappointment to the palate, stomach and brain is the 
reality which is forced upon the passenger. Repeated investiga- 
tions and experiments as to the cause of this have led to the con- 
clusion that it is almost wholly the result of either ignorance or 
indolence, or both. As stated elsewhere the great central truths 
in producing good coffee are fresh roasted^ fresh ground, fresh 
made. As regards the first requisite it is not usually convenient 
to roast coffee on shipboard, nor is it necessary if supplies are 
purchased at each end of the voyage and kept in a tightly closed 
tin receptacle. The second requisite is important ; the coffee 
should be ground in a hand-mill just before it is required for use, 
and if the roasted beans have become damp and tough they should 
be warmed or toasted in the oven of the galley until crisp and 
fragrant so that they will grind easily. The third requisite, how- 
ever, is the most important of all. Coffee should always be 
served as soon as made, and should never be more than fifteen 
minutes old. It is useless for the steward to say this is too much 



44 COFFEE. 

trouble. It is never too much trouble to trim the sails or adjust 
the ventilators, and it ought not to be too much trouble to make 
coffee every fifteen minutes during the hours when coif ee is served. 
They understand this on French steamers, and there are fortunes 
in store for the steamship company that has the enterprise to 
combine English seamanship with a French cuisine. They have 
introduced the French system into English hotels ; why should it 
not be done upon English steamers ? 

In colonial times and in the early days of the Republic, l^ew 
York had its coffee-houses. The names of Burn's Coffee-house, 
the Merchants' Coffee-house, and later the Tontine Coffee-house 
are familiar to all who are acquainted wdth the history of the 
City, They differed somewhat, however, from the European 
cafes in being chiefly business or political headquarters. Yalen- 
tine's Manual of the City of New York gives an interesting ac- 
count of these coffee-houses, accompanied with illustrations, 
showing them to have been quite stately affairs. Among other 
interesting matter relating to these famous old resorts we find 
newspaper advertisements of sales to take place there — among 
others " a parcel of likely negroes to be sold at publick vendue, 
to-morrow at ten o'clock, at the Merchants' Coffee-house." I must 
add for the honor of our metropolis that this occurred in 1750. 
The Merchants' Coffee-house stood on the southeast corner of 
Wall and "Water streets. The " Tontine," on the northwest corner 
of Wall and Water streets, succeeded to its popularity and fame ; 
in 1795 it was in full operation. The Merchants' Exchange was 
then located in the building, but subsequently moved further up 
Wall street. The name of "Tontine" is found as late as 1832, 
and to this day the buildings on this site now occupied for com- 
mercial purposes are known as the Tontine buildings. Browne's 
Coffee-house, on Water street, between Pine and Wall, obtained 
considerable notoriety, in 1832, as a favorite resort of those who 
believed in pure coffee as an antidote to the cholera epidemic. 

The coffee-house, however, no longer exists among us. Amer- 
icans are the greatest coffee consumers in the world, but take the 
beverage mostly at meals, either at home or at the restaurant. 
There are, indeed, in I^ew York, a number of coffee-rooms, or 
cafes, as they sometimes call themselves, attached to some of the 



A. NEW ORLEANS KECIPE. 45 

principal hotels ; but they are expensive and rather exclusive es- 
tablishments and cannot be said to realize the cheerful ideas and 
associations called up by the word coffee-house. We are perhaps 
too busy a people to support cafes like those of Europe, which 
one sees crowded from morning to night with customers disposing 
apparently of endless leisure. 

A NEW ORLEANS KECIPE. 

Some of my Southern readers, no doubt, remember the cup 
of coffee they have drunk at the coffee-stands of the French Mar- 
ket in New Orleans, on the broad " levee." Famous resorts they 
were formerly ! There the early riser sought for the cheer of the 
aromatic cup ; there the keeper of late hours called for the grate- 
ful stimulant after the theatre or the ball. The coffee to be had 
at the French Market was proverbial for its excellence ; and the 
old " auntie " who presided over one of those stands loomed up for- 
ever after as a prophet and lawgiver in all that pertained to coffee ! 
From one of these venerable authorities I hold the following recipe, 
warranted to give the best " Creole coffee," as she termed it : 

" Roast the coffee carefully until it assumes a uniform brown 
color. Then cover it up and allow it to cool. Then grind and 
cover it up again carefully, until placed in the coffee-pot (generally 
of the French pattern), where it must be pressed as compactly as 
possible. Pour a little boiling water over it and let it filter into 
the coffee, then pour again a tablespoonful of boiling water, re- 
peating this every five minutes." 

The result is a very strong extract, not more than a table- 
spoonful or two of water being measured in for each ordinary- 
sized cup of cafe au lait desired. 

If the fact of the above being in toto a Southern recipe could 
induce the average eating-house keeper at the stations along many 
of the Southern railways to adopt it in exchange for the one, what- 
ever it be, which they now follow, I think I should be laying 
claim by this publicity to the deepest gratitude of my Southern 
friends and of travellers generally. My past personal experience 
warrants me in crediting the following entry in the diary of a 
traveller, a Southerner, who had been around the world with me, 



46 COFFEE. 

and who returned to Kew York via New Orleans and the South- 
ern States : 

" Grenada Station, Mississippi, 
" Stopped for breakfast : tried tea, but was not equal to it ; tried cofEee, 
same result. I denominate this the champion establishment, of all places I 
have been at around the world, for the utter depravity of its tea and coffee." 

The coffee-house flourishes both in Italy and in Spain, as any one 
can vouch who has seen the large and crowded cafes in the prin- 
cipal Italian and Spanish cities. These establishments, by their 
general character and by the mode of serving the beverage, belong 
essentially to the French school. You find them along the Corso 
in Rome, the Toledo in Naples, in the Galleria Vittorio Eman- 
uele, and around the Piazza del Duomo in Milan ; along the Riva 
degli Schiavoni and the arcades which surround the Piazza di San 
Marco in Venice, etc. — seemingly ever full, but ever decent and 
orderly. They are, indeed, institutions, landmarks, important 
features of every city. The guide-book invariably gives you a 
list of them, and frequently, not without reason, advises you to 
take at least breakfast there. Ask a direction of a passer-by in 
the streets and he will, not improbably, answer : You know the 
Cafe di Roma, on the Corso, or the Cafe d'ltalia ; well, walk 
right on to it, then turn to your left, etc. And that in a country 
where monuments mark almost every spot. But the chances are 
that your informant is returning from the cafe or intending to 
go there sometime during the day, and naturally enough, in any 
given direction, the cafe is the first thing that looms up in his 
mind's eye. 

In Madrid the Puerto del Sol is the great cafe centre. They 
abound all around this noted spot, and in the principal adjoining 
streets. As a rule, they do not compare in splendor of appoint- 
ments with the Paris cafes. One of them, however, was to me a 
never-failing source of wonder and interest — the great cafe under 
the Hotel de Paris, in the angle formed by the Carrera de San 
Geronimo and the Calle de Alcala, as they run into the Puerto 
del Sol. The immense hall, thus reaching from street to street, 
had its floor a few feet below the level of the square ; and, glanc- 
ing through one of the large windows facing on the Puerto del 
Sol, one commanded a view of its entire extent. And a sight it 



VIENNA COFFEE. 47 

was ! We were there in winter. The sensitive Madrilenos avoided 
the open air and crowded into the cafe. Every one of the, perhaps, 
one hundred tables was surrounded by customers, four, six at a 
time ; some reading the newspapers ; others conversing and ges- 
ticulating; some taking chocolate or coffee; others playing at 
dominoes, or at cards ; men, women, even children in the throng ; 
here, a uniform resplendent with brass buttons and gold lace ; 
there, a " mantilla " with a bright smile not far under it ; near by, 
the dark gown of a priest ; and over and around all, a sort of haze 
or mist of tobacco smoke. Customers came in, and customers 
went out ; but look in at any time, and the same general picture 
greeted your eyes — busy and idle, unintelligible to an American. 

Besides coffee and chocolate, the national beverages, one finds 
in the coffee-houses of Spain, as in those of France and Italy, 
wines, liquors, and a great variety of refreshing drinks. These 
form a very important department of a Spanish cafe. There is 
the " orchata," a drink made of a sort of milk of sweet almonds ; 
the "bebida de naranja" (of orange), "de limon" (of lemon), 
"de fresa" (of strawberry), "de guindas" (of cherry), etc. ; "sor- 
betes," or ices, of all kinds ; " espumas de chocolate, or de cafe " — 
light, frothy creams made of these substances, and the " panales," 
or " azucarias," a little loaf of white blown sugar, in the shape of 
a French roll, very light and very porous, which is allowed to dis- 
solve in a glass of Avater, and with the addition of a little lemon- 
juice or liquor constitutes a favorite beverage. Cigars and ciga- 
rettes, of course, are essentials. 

VIENNA COFFEE. 

In making coffee at the large cafes and hotels on the Karthner 
Ring, in Vienna, the coffee is prepared as follows : To make six 
quarts, one pound six ounces of coffee are used. Within a very 
heavy cylinder or urn that is securely pinned to the floor or table, 
there is fitted a coarse sieve, a piece of cord or rope surround- 
ing the sieve making it fit tightly. Over the sieve there is 
placed a piece of Canton flannel, fastened down by means of 
an iron ring that fits into the rim which holds the sieve. At- 
tached to the sieve is an iron frame with a hook at the top. 



48 COFFEE.. 

The sieve is pressed to tlie bottom of tlie cylinder, the coffee 
placed iTpon the flannel, and boiling-hot water poured upon it. 
This receptacle is then closed and covered, and allowed to stand 
six minutes. A screw fitted into an iron frame is then hooked 
on to the fi-ame holding the sieve, which is then forced toward 
the mouth of the urn, the pressure forcing the infusion through 
the Canton flannel. The coffee is then ready to be served with 
hot milk and whipped cream. Tor the use of families a coffee- 
pot of a somewhat novel character is employed. This is more 
complicated than the simple contrivance described above. The 
water is boiled by means of an alcohol lamp underneath the pot. 
When the water boils the steam passes through a tube, and 
through the finely-ground coffee which has been placed loose in 
the top, and protected by several strainers. A glass top enables 
the operator to see when the coffee is ready for use, and when 
finished the glass cover is removed and a metallic one put in its 
place. This process secures a perfect infusion of the coffee with- 
out loss of aroma, and it lias made Yienna coffee deservedly 
popular. 

THE BEVERAGE IN BRAZIL. 

Brazil is not only the largest coffee-producing, but also, essen- 
tially, a coffee-drinking country. Coffee constitutes almost the 
exclusive beverage of the people, by whom it is consumed 
very largely, especially in the regions where it is grown. They 
almost miiversally take it " black," as we term it — that is, without 
milk. 

The coffee is roasted as with us, sometimes in closed roasters, 
but more frequently in open pans. As a rule, it is more roasted 
than with us, and a larger quantity used, the beverage being taken 
very strong. It is made by grinding the coffee very fine, almost 
to a powder, placing it in a woollen bag, upon which boiling water 
is poured and the strength thus extracted. 

Coffee-houses abound in Rio Janeiro. They are generally of 
smaller size than their European or North American namesakes, 
but provide for three cents, a cup of coffee which is said to equal 
any to be found in Paris or Kew York. It seems to be a matter 
of indifference to the great mass of Brazilian coffee-drinkers 



COFFEE IN JAVA. 49 

wlietlier new or old coffee is used ; but there are epicures among 
the rich planters of Brazil who keep the coffee destined for their 
own table five or six years in the hull. It is claimed by good 
judges that there is no coffee in the world superior to old llio pre- 
served in the hull until mellowed by age ; it develops thus a rich- 
ness, and at the same time a delicacy of flavor not found in any 
other variety of the beau, but for this I cannot personally vouch. 

COFFEE IN JAVA. 

In Java and Sumatra the natives roast the leaves of the coffee- 
tree, and make with them an infusion which they prefer to the 
beverage extracted from the bean. The preparation is said to 
possess a delicate flavor, not unlike that of tea — a resemblance 
accounted for by the presence in both plants of the same chemical 
principle, caffeine or tlieine. The coffee leaves appear to be rich 
in caffeine. 

The use of this coffee-leaf tea, however, is confined to the 
aborigines. The following recipe, which I procured from an old 
resident when in Batavia, describes the process of coffee-making 
as practised by the Dutch settlers in Java : 

" Take a coftee-pot composed of two detached parts, the lower 
one a reservoir, and the upper one a sort of top-story filter, the 
bottom of which is pierced with very fine holes. Over the bottom 
of this filter a double piece of flannel cloth is placed so as to cover 
it entirely, fitting well all round. A sufiicient quantity of well- 
ground coffee being then filled in and firmly tamped or rammed 
down, cold water is slowly poured over it, after which the whole 
is allowed to stand still until the water has passed through the 
coffee into the reservoir underneath. The passing of the water 
through the coffee should occupy at least four to five hours, in or- 
der to extract the full strength and flavor of the substance. For 
that reason, care must be exercised to press the coffee very tightly 
into the filter — an operation facilitated by this part of the coffee- 
pot being separable from the other. The filter should also be 
high and narrow to retard the passage of the liquid, and large 
enough to contain the required quantity of both coffee and water ; 
to pour in a subsequent supply of water is not to be recommended." 
4 



50 COFFEE. 

It will be observed that this filter is very similar to the familiar 
French filtei-ing coffee-pot. The extract thus obtained should be 
of such strength that, mixed with three or four parts of hot milk, 
it will give a splendid cup of cafe au lalt d la Hollandaise. 

Coffee, being exceedingly cheap, is used in profusion in Java, 
but the form of coffee-making as there in use is probably too ex- 
pensive for any but a coffee-producing country. 

I may remark here that the coffee which a traveller ordinarily 
finds at the hotels in Java, and in Ceylon as well, is not such as 
he might anticipate. At many of the stations along the lines of 
the New York Central, or New York and New Haven railroads, 
one can get a cup of coffee which is perfection itself, compared 
with that which is offered the traveller in Java or Ceylon. 

BAHON VON LIEBIG's METHOD. 

Baron Yon Liebig, some years since, commented upon the dif- 
ferent methods of making coffee, and also furnished the world 
with the manner in which he prepared it for his own use : 

" The usual methods of preparing coffee are, 1st, by filtration ; 
2d, by infusion ; 3d, by boiling. 

" Filtration gives often, but not always, a cup of coffee. When 
the pouring of the boiling water over the ground coffee is done 
slowly, the drops in passing come in contact with too much air, 
whose oxygen works a change in the aromatic particles, and often 
destroys them entirely. The extraction, moreover, is incomplete. 
Instead of 20 to 21 per cent, the water dissolves only 11 to 15 
per cent., and 7 to 10 per cent, is lost. 

" Infusion is accomplished by making the water boil, and then 
putting in the ground coffee, the vessel being immediately taken 
off the fire and allowed to stand quietly for about ten minutes. 
The coffee is ready for use when the powder swimming on the 
surface falls to the bottom on slightly stirring it. This method 
gives a very aromatic coffee, but one containing little extract. 

" Boiling, as is the custom in the East, yields excellent coffee. 
The powder is put on the fire in cold water, which is allowed 
merely to boil up a few seconds. The fine particles of coffee are 
drunk with the beverage. If boiled long the aromatic parts are 



BAEOX VON LIEBIG'S METHOD. 61 

volatilized, and the coffee is then rich in extract, but poor in 
aroma. 

" As the best method I adopt the following, which is a imion 
of the second and third : The usual quantities both of coffee and 
water are to be retained ; a tin measure containing half an ounce of 
gi-een berries, when filled with roasted ones, is generally sufficient 
for two small cups of coffee of moderate strengtli, or one so-called 
large breakfast-cup (one pound of green berries, equal to sixteen 
ounces, yielding, after roasting, twenty-four tin measures) of one- 
half ounce, for forty-eight small cups of coffee. With three- 
fourths of the coffee to be employed after being ground, the water 
is made to boil ten or fifteen minutes. The one-quarter of the 
coffee which has been kept back is then thrown in, and the vessel 
immediately withdrawn from the fire, covered over, and allowed 
to stand for five or six minutes. In order that the powder on the 
surface may fall to the bottom it is stirred round ; the deposit 
takes place, and the coffee poured off is ready for use. In order 
to separate the dregs more completely the coffee may be passed 
through a clear cloth, but generally this is not necessary, and often 
prejudicial to the pure flavor of tlie beverage. The first boiling 
gives the strength, the second addition to the flavor. The water 
does not dissolve of the aromatic substance more than the fourth 
part contained in the roasted coffee. 

" The beverage, when ready, ought to be of a brown black 
color ; untransparent it always is, somewhat like chocolate thinned 
with water ; and this want of clearness in coffee so prepared does 
not come from the fine grounds, but from a peculiar fat resem- 
bling butter, about twelve per cent, of which the berries contain, 
and which, if over-roasted, is partly destroyed. In the other 
methods of making coffee more than half the valuable part of the 
berries remains in the ' grounds ' and is lost. 

" To judge as favorably of my coffee as I do myself, its taste 
is not compared with that of the ordinary beverage, but rather 
the good effects might be taken into consideration which my 
coffee has on the organism Many persons, too, who connect 
the idea of strength or concentration with a dark or black color, 
fancy my coffee to be thin and weak, but these were at once in- 
clined more favorably directly I gave it a dark color by means of 



52 COFFEE. 

burnt sugar or by adding some substitute. The real flavor of 
coffee is so little known to most persons, that many who drank my 
coffee for the first time doubted of its goodness, because it tasted 
of the berries. A coffee, however, which has not the flavor of 
the berry is no coffee, but an artificial beverage, for which many 
other things may be substituted at pleasure. Hence it comes that 
if to the decoction made from roasted chicory, carrots, or beet- 
root, the slightest quantity of coffee be added, few persons detect 
the difference. This accounts for the great diffusion of each such 
substitute. A dark mixture, with an empyreumatical taste, most 
people fancy to be coffee. For tea there are no substitutes, as 
everybody knows what real tea is like." 

The charm of many breakfast-tables is taken away by the ef- 
fects of an unclean coffee-pot. The vessel should be thoroughly 
cleansed before using, especially the bottom of the receiver and 
the spout, and under no circumstances should the grounds or stale 
coffee be allowed, after using, to remain in the pot for any length 
of time. Economy in the use of ground coffee is fatal to securing 
a delicious beverage. To sum up, the essentials required to secure 
a cup of coffee suited to any table are : 

First. — The very best quality of freshly roasted and ground 
coffee. 

Second. — Thoroughly clean utensils. 

Third. — Enough coffee, and prepared with sufficient care in 
the manner most according with the taste of the consumer, either 
as cafe noir, cafe au lait, Yienna style, or in the Arabian, Turk- 
ish, or Brazilian method. 



CIIAPTER VIII. 



^.- EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE. 



In" Abyssinia and Ethiopia, where the coffee-plant is found both 
wild and in a cultivated state, coffee seems to have been used as 
a beverage from time immemorial. In those remote regions the 
Arabs are said to have first tasted the fragrant draught, and, 
w^ondering much and approving greatly, to have brought over, 
toward the beginning of the fifteenth century, some of the pre- 
cious beans into their own country, where the use of the bev- 
erage spread rapidly. Different accounts, however, are given by 
the Arabs of the way in which this favorite drink of theirs first 
gained introduction into Arabia. In an Arab manuscript, pre- 
served in one of the public libraries of Paris, it is stated that the 
Mufti of Aden, travelling in Persia, became acquainted there with 
the use of coffee, which had for long years been known in that 
country and in Africa, and introduced it into Arabia. The date 
of this important event is also laid down, in the above-mentioned 
work, at about the beginning of the fifteenth century. This makes 
the introduction of coffee into Arabia a comparatively recent oc- 
currence — dating not much more than half a century before the 
discovery of America, and about eight hundred years after the 
time of Mahomet. According to another version, a moUah, rejoic- 
ing in the name of Chadeby, was the first Arab to take coffee, and 
this he did to conquer a perpetual sleepiness which sadly inter- 
fered with his evening prayers. Still another legend ascribes to 
the vigilant superior of an Arabian monastery the first experi- 
ment in coffee-drinking. This worthy man, it seems, had end- 
less trouble with his dervishes, from their invariable tendency to 
sleep during evening service. Having heard of the peculiar ef- 
fects of coffee upon the goats which browsed upon the plant, he 



54 COFFEE. 

bethought himself of trying the virtue of the berry upon his 
monks. The experiment proved a complete success ; the der- 
vishes took eagerly to the new beverage, to the sacrifice of their 
formerly cherished slumbers. Laymen followed the example — even 
those who did not need to be kept awake, and coffee became the 
national drink of Arabia. The Mahometan pilgrims who flocked 
annually to Mecca were initiated into this new fragment of the 
Faith, and carried back coffee-beans in their saddle-bags to all 
parts of the globe professing the faith of Islam. Coffee overran 
Egypt. It reached Constantinople. In that city there was a 
great rush to the coffee-houses as soon as these establishments 
were opened. 

But for some reason or other coffee excited the animosity of 
the priests. Perhaps it was jealousy of the new shrines in the 
land ! According to one account, the Arabs having called coffee 
Jcahwah, which was an old word in their language for wine, the 
result was a confusion of ideas ; hence the ire of the bigoted. 
Others state that the gatherings at the coffee-houses furnished 
such opportunities for discussions as to alarm the government, 
which, under Amurat III., ordered the closing of all these public 
places, and allowed the use of the beverage only in the privacy of 
the family. 

But coffee was already enthroned in the Turkish heart. It 
triumphed over all. The edict could not be maintained. Similar 
discomfiture attended another attempt, at the time of the Candian 
war, during the minority of Mahomet lY., to suppress the coffee- 
houses. Nor were the opponents of coffee more successful in 
Cairo. "We read that, in the year 1523, a certain Abdalla Ibra- 
him, the chief priest of the Koran in Cairo, began, from the pul- 
pit of his great mosque, a violent campaign against coffee-drinking. 
Thereupon the Cheik el Belek, or governor of the city, assembled 
all the doctors of the law, and after listening with patience to a 
long discussion, he simply had coffee served all round ; and then 
he rose and left, without saying a single word. There never was 
heard in Cairo any more preaching against coffee. 

The first coffee-house in Europe was established in 1554, in Con- 
stantinople. It was not, however, till the middle of the follow- 
ing century, nearly two centuries after its first introduction into 



EAELY HISTORY OF COFFEE. DO 

Arabia, that coffee stepped over the boundaries of Mohammedanism, 
and was introduced among the Christian nations. The first coffee- 
house in London was opened in Newman's Court, Cornhill, in 
1652, by a Greek named Pasqua liossie. This Greek, says a writer 
on the subject, "was the servant of an English merchant named 
Edwards, who brought some coffee with him from Smyrna, and 
whose house, when the fact became known, was so thronged with 
friends and visitors to taste the new beverage, that, to relieve 
himself from annoyance, Edwards established his servant in a 
coffee-house." 

As early as 1658 the use of coffee had been revealed to the 
inhabitants of Marseilles by merchants and travellers. About 
that year, Thevenot, a citizen, on his return from his Eastern trav- 
els, is said to have "regaled his guests with coffee after dinner." 

" This, however," says Le Grand d'Aussy in his " Yie Privee 
des Fran9ais," " was but the eccentricity of a traveller, which 
would not come into fashion among such people as the Parisians. 
To bring coffee into credit, some extraordinary and striking cir- 
cumstance was necessary. This circumstance occurred on the ar- 
rival, in 1669, of an embassy from the Grand Seigneur Mahomet 
TV. to Louis XIY. Soliman Aga, chief of the mission, having 
passed six months in the capital, and during his stay having ac- 
quired the friendship of the Parisians by some traits of wit and 
gallantry, several persons of distinction, chiefly women, had the 
curiosity to visit him at his house. The manner in which he re- 
ceived them not only inspired a wish to renew the visit, but in- 
duced others to follow the example. He caused coffee to be 
served to his guests, according to the custom of his country ; for 
since fashion had introduced the custom of serving this beverage 
among the Turks, civility demanded that it should be offered to 
visitors, as well as that these should not decline partaking of it. 
If a Frenchman, in a similar case, to please the ladies, had pre- 
sented to them this black and bitter liquor, he would have been 
rendered forever ridiculous. But the beverage was served by a 
Turk — a gallant Turk — and this was sufficient to give it inestima- 
ble value. Besides, before the palate could judge, the eyes were 
seduced by the display of elegance and neatness which accom- 
panied it ; by those brilliant porcelain cups into which it was 



66 COFFEE. 

poured ; bj napkins with gold fringes, on wliicli it was served to 
the ladies. Add to this the furniture, the dresses, and the foreign 
customs, the strangeness of addressing the host through the inter- 
preter, being seated on the ground, on tiles, etc., and you will 
allow that there was more than enough to turn the heads of his 
visitors. Leaving the hotel of the ambassador with an enthusiasm 
easily imagined, they hastened to their acquaintances, to speak of 
the coffee of which they had partaken ; and Heaven only knows 
to what a degree they were excited." 

Marseilles lays claim to the first coffee-house in France, 1671. 
In the following year, an Armenian, named Pascal, opened a 
shop at the Fair of Saint-Germain, near Paris, in which he dis- 
pensed the exotic beverage to the sightseers. This success en- 
couraged him to establish a coffee-house in the capital, on the 
Quai de I'Ecole. It was small in proportions and modest in ap- 
pointments, chiefly frequented by travellers, knights of Malta, 
and officers of the army and navy ; but it soon achieved with 
these considerable reputation, sold its coffee very high, and 
proved a most profitable venture. Pascal is said to have subse- 
quently gone to London, to engage there in the coffee trade. Is it 
not barely possible that this person is identical with the Greek, 
Rossie, previously mentioned ? At last, an enterprising spirit, 
Etienne d'Alep, built what was for the time a magnificent hall, 
with mirrors, divans, marble tables, etc., in the Oriental taste. 
He soon had several competitors. The celebrated Procope, after 
having long sold coffee at the Fair of Saint-Germain, founded 
in 1689, in the rue des Fosses Saint-Germain, in Paris, near the 
theatre of the Com6die Fran9aise, the establishment which has 
since been immortalized by its association with the names of Boi- 
leau, Lafontaine, Moliere, and later, Yoltaire, the Encyclopedists, 
etc. Later on, under Louis XY., the famous Cafe de la Ilegence 
was established, which became the Mecca of chess-players. The 
cafe had definitively struck root in Paris, and no breeze of politi- 
cal change or popular fickleness was ever to destroy it. 

In London the growth of coffee in popular favor liad been still 
more rapid. " Three years after the first introduction of coffee 
upon the statute books," says Mr. Simmonds, "the increase of 
houses for its sale had become so great that by the Act passed 



EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE. 67 

in 1663, ' For the better ordering and collecting the duty of excise, 
and preventing the abuses therein ' (15 Chas. II., Cap. II., Sect. 
15), express provision is made for the licensing of all coffee-houses 
at the quarter sessions, under a penalty of £5 for every month 
during which any person should retail coffee, chocolate, or tea, 
without having first procured such license from the magistrates. 
From that time to the Revolution, coffee-houses multiplied so rap- 
idly that, when Ray published his ' History of Plants,' in 1688, 
he estimated that the coffee-houses in London were at that time 
as numerous as in Cairo itself ; while similar places of accommo- 
dation were to be met with in all the principal cities and towns 
in England." 

Indeed, such favorite meeting-places had the coffee-houses 
become with the politicians and wits of London, " for discussing, 
theorizing, and general wagging of tongue," under the exhilara- 
tion of coffee, that in 1675 the government of Charles II. came 
to look upon them as public nuisances, and endeavored to have 
them prohibited by the courts of law as " hot-beds of seditious 
talk and slanderous attacks upon persons in high stations." A 
decision was, in fact, rendered to that effect ; but, in England as 
in Turkey, coffee rose superior to its foes. The English coffee- 
houses could not be stifled ; they grew daily in popularity and 
attained the height of activity and splendor in the first half of 
the eighteenth century. 

It is curious to contrast this immediate and enthusiastic adop- 
tion of coffee-drinking in England with its rather slow begin- 
nings in France — a country which has since become as devoted to 
coffee as England has grown indifferent to it. A French writer 
suggests that one of the reasons why the English took so quickly 
to coffee was that Great Britain, neither at home nor in her 
colonies, had any cheap and good wines. By the use of the new 
stimulant not only the British stomach, but British pride was grat- 
ified ; for England, ever disliking dependence, political or com- 
mercial, had not to borrow coffee from her continental neighbors, 
with whom she was on doubtful terms, France, on the contrary, 
raised an abundance of wines. Coffee found the grape in full 
possession of the popular heart. The " cabarets," or wine-shops, 
were resorted to openly and generally by the young nobility, the 



58 COFFEE. 

celebrated aiitliors of tlie time, the military, etc. In fact, wine- 
drinking was a national trait, and, besides the extreme cheapness 
of wine, many Frenchmen were inclined to look with disdain 
upon the new " drug." Even when coffee had come into general 
use, says one author, some pig-headed old patriots, who had 
sworn never to forsake the bottle, persisted in fi^equenting the 
wine-shops out of a sheer spirit of nationality. It is also well 
known that Louis XIY. did not like coffee, which is as much as 
to say that the court did not, nor fashionable society. The ladies 
of the "grand monde," with Madame de Sevigne at their head, 
had declared themselves decidedly against coffee. " Racine and 
coffee will pass," predicted the amiable letter-writer. But all 
this opposition gradually fell ; even then, as we have seen, inde- 
pendent spirits did not follow these prejudices. The next king, 
Louis XY., to please his mistress, Madame du Barry, began to 
take coffee ; immediately all the court went wild over the bever- 
age, which already had hosts of fervent worshippers in the outside 
public. 

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the consumption 
of coffee was probably general among the fashionable and upper 
classes in England and on the Continent. With new sources of 
supply in the following years, the use of the beverage extended 
downward among the people generally. The Germans, who had 
long been preceded in the practice by the Ketherlanders, began 
drinking coffee during the seven years' w^ar (1756-1763). Several 
of the smaller German states at this time, says a Dutch writer, 
considered the use of coffee a very dangerous innovation, and proc- 
lamations were issued prohibiting its use, with the view thereby to 
prevent an outflow of money from the country. These ridiculous 
measures only stimulated the consumption, and, at the commence- 
ment of the present century, coffee was known all over the west- 
ern part of Europe, and considered one of the most important 
staple articles. Nothing less than the hand of Napoleon clutching 
Europe by the throat sufficed to check for a while the drinking of 
coffee. The " Continental Blockade " and the enormous prices 
consequent thereupon restricted coffee drinking for many years to 
the wealthier classes on the Continent. But Napoleon fell, and a 
few years later, after the readjustment of the supply and demand, 



EAKLY HISTORY OF COFFEE. 59 

coffee steadily resumed the course of its popular conquests, which 
are still extending. 

For more than fifty years after the introduction of the bev- 
erage into Europe, Arabia still furnished the entire coffee-supply 
of the world — a necessarily very limited quantity. Then the 
Hollanders, in the second decade of the eighteenth century, made 
their appearance in the markets of Europe with the product 
of Java. In a few years the culture extended to the "West 
Indies, where it spread with wonderful rapidity. Those islands 
had become, in the beginning of the present century, the chief 
source of supply, the industry in Java having in the meantime 
progressed at a comparatively slow pace. Another revolution 
worked itself out toward the middle of the century. There was 
witnessed the gradual decline and almost abandonment of coffee- 
production in the "West Indies, brought about by low prices, the 
scarcity of labor, political disturbances, the adoption of more re- 
munerative cultures, etc. But Java, in the East, had already de- 
veloped to vast proportions her coffee-industry, while an immense 
coffee-producing power was growing up in South America — Brazil 
not only soon overtook Java, but continued to advance, until, at 
the present day, more than one-half of the coffee consumed in the 
world issues from her fields. Java now holds the second rank in 
the list of coffee-producers, while Ceylon follows close on the 
heels of the Dutch Island, and, of late. Southern India and Central 
America have assumed a very decided importance as coffee-pro- 
ducing countries. Thus Brazil, in the "Western Hemisphere, and 
Java and Sumatra, Ceylon and India, in the Eastern, constitute at 
this time the great centres of coffee-production, with minor areas 
of culture scattered in the West Indies, Mexico, South and Central 
America, Arabia, the Eastern Ai'chipelago, and the western and 
eastern coasts of Africa. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE MOCHA BEKRY. 

In popular estimation Arabian coffee, known as Mocha, ranks as 
the finest. For more than four centuries coffee-culture has been 
carried on in Arabia, and for two centuries that country furnished 
the world with its supply, which was, however, limited. As stated 
elsewhere, while Abyssinia claims the honor of giving the coffee- 
tree to the world, Arabia furnished to Java the first plants grown 
in the East Indies, and Java, in turn, transmitted the tree to 
Europe, whence the "West Indies and Brazil obtained it, so that 
virtually Arabia gave to the world the far-famed plant. 

The coffee-production of Arabia, however, cannot be said to 
have, at the present day, any real importance in the world's 
supply. The quantities of genuine Arabian coffee which reach 
Europe and America are very small, and it is estimated that only 
about four thousand tons of coffee are now annually exported from 
Arabia, although thirty years ago the exports reached 10,000 tons. 
East India coffee is now freely imported into Arabia, and even 
the product of Brazil finds its way to the Arabian coffee-pot. 

The plant is mostly cultivated on terraces in the hills of Yemen, 
toward the districts of Aden and Mocha. The excessively hot, 
dry, and sandy character of the region renders irrigation and 
shade indispensable, and these peculiarities of soil and climate are 
said to account for the smallness and the acrid flavor of the Mocha 
bean. Certain it is that Mocha seeds planted in Brazil produce 
trees which in a short time give Brazil, and not Mocha coffee. In 
Arabia the berries are dried in the pulp, and the processes em- 
ployed in preparing the bean for market are most primitive. The 
product, especially in the lower grades, remains very imperfectly 
cured, and generally mixed with fragments of hull, small stones, 




^«W. A:^, ^— r-^€^?^ 



ARABIAN COFFEE ^LA^•T. 



THE MOCHA BEERY. 61 

and other extraneous substances. A portion of that destined for 
export finds its way to Aden, whence it is reshipped on passing 
steamers. Captain Hunter, author of a monograpli on Aden, 
gives the following interesting account of coffee-cultivation in 
Arabia : 

" There are three distinct states in its culture : 1st, the prep- 
aration of the seed ; 2d, the sowing ; and od, the bedding out of 
the plant. The seed is prepared by removing the shell or per- 
icarp ; it is then mingled with wood-ashes and dried in the shade. 
Seed thus prepared is frequently purchased by planters who seek 
to avoid the trouble of preparation. The seed is planted in pre- 
pared beds of rich soil, mingled with manure consisting of cattle 
and sheep dung. The beds are covered with the branches of trees 
to protect the young plants from the heat of the sun during Octo- 
ber, Kovember, and December. They are watered every six or 
seven days. After about six or seven weeks the plants are careful- 
ly removed from the ground in the early morning, placed in mat- 
bags, and carried to the field or gardens, which are always in the 
vicinity of springs of water. The plants are placed in rows, at 
a distance of from two to three feet from each other, and are 
watered every fortnight ; if necessary, the soil is manured. After 
about two, or sometimes three, or even four years, the tree begins 
to yield. The quantity of coffee brought to Aden, chiefly on the 
backs of what Madame Racliel used to advertise as ' swift drom- 
edaries,' now amounts to about eighty thousand hundred-weight 
a year. About seven thousand camel-loads passed the barrier in 
the year 1875-76. The value of coffee now exported is some- 
thing over £300,000 a year, and of the fifty-seven thousand hun- 
dred-weight exported in 1875-76 one-half went to France." 

The bulk of the supply is sent to London and Marseilles ; but 
two or three of the leading importing houses in this country have 
agents in Aden and Alexandria, w^ho select and ship to Boston 
and New York the genuine Mocha, in addition to which there is 
received a good deal that is only Mocha in name. Generally, the 
coffee arrives here in large bales containing smaller packages, 
styled eighth (forty pounds) and quarter bales (eighty pounds), pe- 
culiar in shape and constructed of a coarse material, sewed with a 
vegetable substance that becomes hard and excessively tough by 



bZ COFFEE. 

age. The tare allowed varies somewhat — from two and a half to 
three and a half pounds on eighths, and from four to four and a 
half pounds on quarter bales. The infusion made from the roasted 
beans possesses a heavier body than that from Java, and has a some- 
what pungent or acrid flavor. When fresh roasted, Mocha gives 
forth a rich aroma, regarded by many as superior to that of other 
sorts ; but some connoisseurs regard Mocha as inferior to the finest 
Java and the choice kinds produced in other countries. The high 
repute in which it is held is undoubtedly due more to its scarcity, 
its former reputation, and the fact that Arabia was the starting- 
point from which the nations using coffee obtained their supply, 
than to its being superior to choice selections of other varieties. 
As in all other kinds of coffee, however, we find good and poor 
qualities. At Aden and Alexandria the coffee is carefully picked 
over and assorted in compliance with the singular fashion in trade, 
which creates a demand in Europe for tlie larger beans, while the 
United States will have none but the smaller ones. In point of 
fact, the larger beans are the best, being fully developed and more 
perfect, both in appearance and flavor ; but fashion in food is all- 
powerful in this as in other branches of trade. A striking illustra- 
tion of this is found in the item of pepper : in public estimation 
white pepper is superior to black, and I had always supposed that 
they were two distinct varieties, but when visiting a pepper-plan- 
tation at Singapore, a few years since, I found that white pepper 
was simply black pepper which had been soaked in water during 
the process of preparation until the black outside skin could be 
rubbed off, leaving the white inside kernel. The most desirable 
aromatic properties are contained in the skin and a thin layer of 
matter next it, and both of these are sacrificed to a mistaken no- 
tion of consumers that white pepper is more pleasing to the eye. 
When to this fact is added another, that the process of preparing 
white pepper is long, tedious, and costly, making it necessary to 
charge, perhaps, fifty per cent, more for the white than for the 
black article ; and further, that chemicals are sometimes used to 
bleach the white kernels still whiter, injuring the flavor still more, 
and making it positively bitter — the absurdity of this fashion is 
evident. But to resume the consideration of Arabian coffee : up the 
Red Sea, about one hundred and twenty miles from Aden, is the 



THE MOCHA BERRY. 63 

little port of Moclia, which furnishes the trade-name for the Ara- 
bian coffee, and from whence, until the construction of the Suez 
Canal, when Aden was made the port of call for the Eastern steam 
lines, most of it was exported. Now it goes either to Aden hy 
native trading vessels or to Alexandria by the Khedive's Red Sea 
line of steamers. Considerable quantities of African coffee from 
the north coast also find their way, through the Berber and other 
native traders, to the same destination and go into consumption 
as " Mocha." The imports received into the United States under 
the name of Mocha amounted in 1878 to 12,788 bales, in 1879 
to 16,346 bales, and in 1880 to 14,172 bales — only about one- 
half of which were probably of Arabian growth. 



CHAPTEE X. 

THE JAVA BEEEY. 

The coffee that occupies the highest place in the estimation of 
the American public, and, with the single exception of Mocha, 
commands the highest price, is JaA)a, deriving its name from the 
island where it is produced, although, as with many other articles 
of commerce, the name has, to a considerable extent, become a 
generic one, applying to all coffee of similar character produced in 
the same part of the world. In point of fact, almost the entire 
portion of the " Java " coffee consumed in the United States is 
produced on the Island of Sumatra. It is none the worse for 
this, however, and indeed the Sumatra coffee is generally pre- 
ferred by American connoisseurs to that of Java growth. 

In the early history of the industry the propagation of the 
coffee-plant progressed slowly in Java. It began in 1696 by the 
introduction of plants fi'om Malabar ; but it was not until 1712 
that the first invoice of Java coffee apeared in the Amsterdam 
market, consisting of 974 pounds, of which more than one- 
half was mountain coffee. It was sold for 23f stuivers per 
Amsterdam pound, equivalent to 4:3f cents per United States 
pound. It brought, however, such a high price as to induce 
strict orders to push its cultivation on a larger scale. Twelve years 
later, 1,396,486 pounds of this coffee were sold in Amsterdam, 
and coffee henceforth held undisputed priority among the staples 
of Java. After a period of comparative inactivity under the 
management of the Dutch East India Company, the government 
of the Netherlands established the system of cultivation which is 
still in existence, and which by degrees has developed the pro- 
duction of Java to its present magnitude. This system is, in brief, 
a monopoly of the Dutch government. The coffee is raised by 
the natives under the supervi:ion of the government, which buys 
the entire product at a low fixed price, and disposes of it through 



THE JAVA BERRY. 65 

tlie " Maatschappy," or Netherlands Trading Company, by sales at 
public auction, either in Batavia, Padang, or Amsterdam. There 
are also plantations owned and worked by individual proprietors, 
but the aggregate production of these estates amounts to only 
about one-sixth of the entire yield of the island. These planta- 
tions were mostly in existence before the adoption of the govern- 
ment monopoly system, or are worked on lands of inland princes 
who have retained that part of their native sovereign rights. 

A visit to Java, made in 1876, afforded me an opportunit'* 
of inspecting the Java coffee-fields and the methods of cul- 
ture. One of the finest estates visited was that owned by Mr. 
J. TV. E. de Sturler, situated in the Preanger district. It com- 
prises upwards of 20,000 acres, upon which, at various elevations, 
are grown rice, coffee, tea, cloves, and nutmegs. The coffee-plan- 
tation covers over 800 acres, upon which I found more than half 
a million trees in all the various stages of growth and bearing, 
producing in average years 3,000 piculs (408,000 lbs.), which 
would be equivalent to 3,000 government bags, or 6,000 half-picul 
mats. The trees are here raised from the seed, which is the 
regular coffee-bean of commerce, and begin bearing at the age of 
two years, their product annually increasing thereafter for many 
years. The yield varies greatly, however, with different trees and 
different years, a tree in full bearing producing from one to two 
pounds of beans per year. The trees are set at regular inter- 
vals of about ten feet, although in some plantations they are 
set in rows somewhat closer than this, the rows, however, being 
about that distance apart. The trees are kept pruned down to a 
height of about ten feet, the top being cut off, thus causing the 
tree to spread. The diameter of the trunk, of course, varies with 
age, but the average size of trees in full bearing may be said to 
be about that of a man's wrist. In Java the picking begins in 
January, and lasts for three or four months. In this work men, 
women, and children are employed, and as the fruit is brought in 
from the field in baskets it is thrown into large heaps, where it is 
allowed to ferment for about three days. It is then spread out in 
the sun to dry, which usually takes two weeks or more, according 
to the weather, and when dry it is put into a hulling-machine as 
described in a previous chapter. After the beans are carefully 
5 



66 COFFEE. 

picked over and assorted they are packed for transportation to the 
shipping ports. There the coffee is " dumped," and the planter's 
bags returned to him, and when sold it is understood to be " in 
bulk," the purchaser having to provide his own bags for shipment. 
The coffee is also prepared by the other and newer method, com- 
monly designated the "washed" or ""West India preparation." 
The advocates of the old method claim, however, that it retains 
the caffeone, in which is embodied the flavor of the coffee, in a 
much greater degree, and that it is therefore superior to the 
washed coffee. In this, after repeated trials, I am inclined to con- 
cur, although many professionals claim that the " dried hulled " 
coffee is inferior to the washed. Mr. de Sturler sells his coffee by 
sending a circular-note to the principal firms in Batavia, inform- 
ing them that he has so many thousands of piculs for sale and 
inviting proposals. These proposals are opened on a certain day, 
and the entire lot is disposed of to the highest bidder. While 
this is not exactly the same as the government method of market- 
ing the crops, it is the same in principle and accomplishes the 
same object — that of obtaining a free competition. 

The scenery upon the islands of Java and Sumatra is of the 
most diversified and beautiful character. Lofty mountains, rang- 
ing in height from four thousand to ten thousand feet and covered 
with luxuriant foliage, abound in both islands. Deep goi-ges, 
rushing streams, fertile valleys, fine plateaus, jungles and forests, 
lowlands and highlands, hills and volcanoes, lakes and rivers, all 
contribute to make these islands the most attractive spots in the 
world. Certainly one of the most delightful pictures lingering 
in my memory is that of the hill slopes of Preanger, near Buiten- 
zorg, with their thousands of shapely and luxuriant coffee trees in 
all stages of bearing, and in the background the high volcanic cone 
of Salac, towering far above the entire range. Another pleasant 
picture which lingers in memory is that of a Javan tea plantation 
in the Buitenzorg district. The residence is situated nearly in 
the centre of the large estate, upon high ground, surrounded M^ith 
a mass of tropical foliage. In front is a grove of banyan and 
other magnificent shade trees ; in the rear, a grove of handsome 
cocoanut palms, while the garden, both in front and rear, is filled 
with an endless variety of gaudy flowers, and with nutmeg, clove, 



THE JAVA BEKPwY. 67 

coffee, cocoa, plantain (banana), and many other fruit-bearing 
trees and shrubs. The house is built in the " bungalow " or one- 
storied style, common in tropical countries, the centre of it being 
occupied by a large square room or hall, which constitutes the 
chief sitting-room. While sitting there, enjoying a cup of tea, 
a peculiar cry uttered by the planter brought down a parrot 
of gorgeous hue from the top of one of the tall trees near the 
house, which perched upon his shoulder and proceeded to share 
his tea with him. The tinkling upon a teacup with a spoon was 
the signal for a flock of beautiful tame pigeons to come ; these 
were rewarded with a little rice and sent away. Another signal 
filled the room with dogs of many sizes and kinds. In a short 
time we were again surprised at seeing a number of beautiful 
horses brought around to eat their rice from off the stone veranda. 
Upon enquiring the reason for this we found that it was because 
the attendants were in the habit of appropriating a part of the 
quantity allotted to the horses, and could not be trusted to give 
them the requisite supply of this article unless under the imme- 
diate eye of the owner. Here were the choicest breeds of English 
and Arab racing stocks, and upon expressing admiration for them I 
was shown the stables, where there were about thirty horses of all 
sorts and sizes, which are used only for racing and saddle purposes. 

Hunting is one of the amusements of a planter's life — the tigers, 
leopard, rhinoceros, and M-ild boar being the principal kinds of 
game pursued in Java, deer also abounding. In a small en- 
closure in the rear of the house were various specimens of the last 
named beautiful animals, including one species, which, when full 
grown, was not over eight inches high, looking more like a deli- 
cate rabbit with pipe-stem legs than like a deer. At a little dis- 
tance from the house was a small park, within which there was a 
herd of still another variety, larger in size than those in the small 
enclosure at the house, being fully as large as our American deer, 
but destitute of as fine horns, nor are they so pretty. 

One feature of plantation life in Java would jar upon tlie sensi- 
bilities of most persons educated in American ideas and in the prin- 
ciples which lie at the foundation of government in the United 
States, viz., the contempt and want of consideration with which 
the natives are treated. As the natives approach the planter, 



68 COFFEE. 

bearing some written message or report from tlie superintendents, 
thej uncover tlieir heads, and, bowing to the ground, tliey creep 
upon their hands and knees in order to hand the message to 
their " master." While the movement added wonderfully to the 
oriental aspect of the scene, it did not dispel the thought that 
" oriental " has come to be entirely associated with the idea of 
despotism and cruelty, the day for which has gone by. The 
natives, however, are better than slaves in the following respects : 
they cannot be punished by whipping, and are free to come 
and go when they please. They are, however, miserably poor, 
ignorant, and degraded, and whether this is the effect of the 
climate, or not, is hard to determine. The old residents of the 
island represent that they do not seem to display much energy 
or to make much effort to elevate themselves. This is, doubtless, 
owing in a great measure to the fact that the Dutch government 
has adopted the plan of maintaining the authority of the native 
chiefs over them, the Dutch, in turn, subsidizing and controlling the 
chiefs, who, for hundreds of years, have maintained a most grinding 
despotism over their miserable subjects, levying forced loans and 
otherwise despoiling those who, by exceptional industry and pru- 
dence, have accumulated anything beyond their daily subsistence. 
The Dutch first conquered the island by force of arms, thereby 
establishhig a claim to ownership of all the land, and then kept 
the native chiefs friendly by giving them a larger income than 
they formerly enjoyed, but requiring the chiefs in turn to make 
their people work systematically in cultivating the soil, and to sell 
their entire product to the Dutch government at a price so low 
that it barely gave them a subsistence. By this system the Dutch 
have derived an enormous revenue from their East India posses- 
sions, and in turn have given the natives greater security for life 
than they before enjoyed ; but this has been the only improve- 
ment, the despotism of the native chiefs being perpetuated indef- 
initely, and most of the people kept so poor that there is but little 
chance for them to better their condition. As the population 
increased, a greater supply of labor became available than could 
be profitably employed under government supervision ; and as 
there was an abundance of land, portions of it were from time to 
time leased to individuals with the privilege of planting, until 



THE JAVA BEERY. 69 

now there are a considerable number of private planters in Java, 
from whose enterprise the government derives a large revenue, 
not only in the sums received for leases but also for export and 
import duties on the articles produced and consumed by them. 
Dutch rule in the East has not been very beneficent to the gov- 
erned, but, on the other hand, it may probably be said with truth 
that the people of these countries are no worse off now than they 
were before, while Holland has been gi-eatly benefited. 

The soil in the island of Java is rich, never seems to be ex- 
hausted, and when apparently used up on the surface, the planter 
has only to go deeper and secure a richer soil at once. For coffee- 
growing, plantations formed on forest clearings, one thousand five 
hundred to four thousand feet above sea-level, are the best ; al- 
though the lowlands are also used for coffee culture, but the tree 
in that case is not as productive or as long-lived. 

Under the system of government monopoly, each family of 
natives is required to raise and take care of about six hundred 
and fifty trees, and to pick, dry, and deliver at the government 
stores the product thereof. The price received by the natives 
from the government is placed at a figure low enough to leave an 
enormous margin of profit to the government, which deducts from 
the gross price paid to the growers a duty of ten florins ($4) per 
picul. It may well be doubted, however, whether the plan of 
compulsory culture by natives, whose eagerness to be rid of the 
task induces them to hastily perform it, with great waste of pro- 
duct, and the exclusion of foreign capital and enterprise from the 
vast stretches of unimproved lands are calculated to develop the 
full resources of the country, and to compete successfully with 
the unfettered and scientific industry of the wealthy and ener- 
getic Anglo-Saxon cultivators. 

The first of the Java crop, as previously stated, was sold in 
Amsterdam, in 1712, by the Dutch East India Company, which 
monopoly, or its successors, has controlled the sale of the coffee- 
product of Java ever since. It exists to-day under the name of 
the Netherland Handel Maatschappy, with headquarters in Am- 
sterdam, and branches in all parts of the world, including New 
York, at which point an agency was established in January, 1879. 

In the fifteenth century the nations of Europe contended for 



70 COFFEE. 

the trade of the East Indies. Prince John of Portugal led the 
way, and securing a foothold in India, monopolized the trade for 
nearly a century. Toward the close of the sixteenth century a 
war between Spain, which had annexed Portugal, and England 
forced the latter country to draw its Indian produce from the 
Dutch. Lisbon, at that time, was the chief port of entry for the 
rich merchandise of the Indies, but the revolt of the Netherlands 
closed Lisbon to the Dutch, and forced them to find a direct pas- 
sao-e to India. Between 1590 and 1600, as the result of that 
move, those twin monopolies known as the East India Companies 
of England and Holland were formed. 

On April 2, 1595, an Amsterdam corporation, known as a 
" Company for Remote Parts," despatched four small vessels, via 
the Cape of Good Hope, to the East Indies. Other companies 
started at the same time, and finally, in 1G02, the interests of the 
different organizations were merged into one association, char- 
tered by the States General, with the privilege granted of exclu- 
sive control of trade to the East Indies for twenty-one years, with 
the addition of all necessary civil and military power. Within 
twenty years the enormous amount of 30,000,000 guilders ($12,- 
000,000) was divided among the stockholders, who originally 
paid in 6,500,000 guilders ($2,600,000) as capital. The company 
also had great possessions in land, vessels, and war material. In 
1623 the charter was renewed for a second term of twenty-one 
years, and again in 1644:, after which the company colonized the 
Cape of Good Hope, and gained control of Ceylon and Formosa, 
and other settlements of the Portuguese. In 1665 the payment of 
a heavy sum secured a new lease of power until 1700. From that 
date the monopoly occupied the chief centres of trade, and virtu- 
ally controlled the wealth of the Indies. A renewal of the char- 
ter was secured in 1735, 1711, and in 1776 for a period of thirty 
years. In 1781 pecuniary aid was required, as the resources of 
the company had been depleted by wars and expenses incident to 
maintaining its vast extent of territory and extended commerce. 

Upon the formation of the republic of Batavia, on September 
15, 1795, the existence of the company ceased, and its affairs passed 
under government control. In 1824 King William I. established a 
new trading company, with a capital of over £3,000,000, the king 



THE JAVA BERKY. 



71 



guaranteeing an interest of four per cent, on the paid-up capital. 
In its early liistorj the king was compelled to make good his guaran- 
tee, but after 1830 the affairs of the company prospered. Large 
quantities of merchandise, suited for the different markets of the 
world, are purchased at the various branches of the trading com- 
pany. The East Indian products are generally sold at the peri- 
odical sales held in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, etc. Some idea of 
the extent of these sales may be formed, when it is stated that 
the business of one year (1872) reached nearly $28,000,000, repre- 
senting the sum obtained for the coffee, sugar, tin, dyes, rattans, 
tobacco, cotton, nutmegs, cassia, camphor, fine woods, etc., sent 
from the East by the company's agents. The present capital of 
the company is $14,400,000, with its affairs in a flourishing condi- 
tion, the American branch contributing largely to swell its income. 
The following record gives the quantity of Java coffee sold in 
the Netherlands by the East India Company from 1751 to 1794: 

Year. U. S. lbs. | Year. U. S. lbs. 

1711 1 1721 127,212 

1712 974 1 1722 13,208 

1713 2,933 1723 79,808 

1714 2,782 1724 1,402,685 

1715 1,734 1725 2,780,930 

1710 4,464 j 1726 4,7:.9,913 

1717 10,066 1 1727 4,578,464 



1718 14,464 

1719 30,818 

1720 42,061 



1711-1720 110,896 

Piculs (136 lbs.) 815 

Year. U. S. lbs. 

1731 3,220,909 

1732 4,669,546 

1733 1,779,044 

1734 3,753,319 

1735 4,374,210 

1730 4,466,197 

1737 4,949,091 

1738 4,558,842 

1739 3,998,432 

1740 1,051,528 



1728 4,456,633 

1729 3,649,435 

1730 3,148,349 



1731-1740 30,821,708 

Piculs ( 136 lbs. ) 270, 747 



1721-1730 25,032,635 

Piculs (136 lbs.) 181,063 

Y( ar. U. S. lbs. 

1741 1,554,567 

1742 1,470,827 

1743 4,739,173 

1744 4,779,039 

1745 3,300,358 

1746 3,310,766 

1747 4,413,980 

1748 3,434,288 

1749 1,983,940 

1750 1,999,907 



1741-1750 29,951,845 

Piculs (136 lbs. ) 220, 234 



72 



COFFEE. 



Year. TT. S. lbs. 

1751 4,395,098 

1752 3,119,552 

1753 3,032,883 

1754 3,430,505 

1755 3,831,885 

1756 3,259,731 

1757 3,093,340 

1758 4,155,952 

1759 396,614 

1760 4,786,656 



1751-1760 33,502,216 

Piculs (136 lbs.) 246,339 



Year. IT. S. lbs. 

1761 4,340,588 

1762 4,593,033 

1763 3,258,368 

1764 2.848,520 

1705 4,163,849 

1766 4,220,492 

1767 3,087,621 

1768 1,947,124 

1769 5,039,919 

1770 4,786,384 

1761-1770 38,285,898 

Piculs (136 lbs. > 281,514 



Year. U. S. lbs. I Year. 

1771 6,04.5,615 '1781. 

1772 5,413,821 

1773 789,743 

1774 6,236,243 

1775 6,726,428 

1776 6,015,932 

1777 6,317,940 

1778 4,575,060 

1779 4,493,243 

1780 4,673,097 



U. S. lbs. 



1771-1780 51,287,122 

Piculs (136 lbs.) 377,111 



1782 

1783 2,891,680 

1784 3,271,120 

1785 9.486,921 

1786 8,577,440 

1787 4,992,534 

1788 

1789 3,610,734 

1790 4,371,674 



1781-1790 37,202, 103 

Piculs (136 lbs.) 273,545 



Year. TT. S. lbs. 

1791 5,499,478 

1792 9,444,798 

1793 8,704,383 

1794 1,436,568 



Piculs (136 lbs.). 



25,085,227 
184,450 



In 1840-41 the total production was about equal to the entire 
amount raised from 1711 to 1794 inclusive. Between 1794 and 1808 
an unsettled state of affairs brought the export to the Netherlands 
to a stop, yet the cultivation continued, the government receiving 
123,532 piculs (16,800,352 pounds) in 1808 ; 117,832 piculs (16,- 
025,152 pounds) in 1809, and 120,963 piculs (16,450,968 pounds) in 
1810. From 1811 to 1816 the cultivation was under British 



THE JAVA BERRY. 



73 



control. The result of the industry from 1817 to 1826 was as 
follows ; 



Year. 


Ficuls. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds. 


1817 

1818 

1819 

1820 

1821 


98,900 
86,100 
65,400 
52,600 
98,000 


13,450,400 

11,709,600 

8,894,400 

7,153,600 

13,328,000 


1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 


91,600 

67,900 

70,900 

115,900 


12,457,600 
9,234,400 
9,642.400 

15,762,400 



The following statement exhibits the production in the island 
of Java. It was prepared and published in 1880 by N. P. Yan 
Den Berg, LL.D., President of the Java Bank, in a pamphlet 
entitled : " Historical and Statistical I^otes on the Production and 
Consumption of Coffee." The exports from the island, for the 
years mentioned, exceeded the production, as they included im- 
ports into Java from neighboring islands: 



Java produced in 
the year 


In 
thousands 
of Piculs. 


Production 
reduced to 
thousands of 
lbs. U. S. 
standard. 


Java produced in 
the year 


In 
thousands 
of Piculs. 


Production 
reduced to 
thousands of 
lbs. U. S. 
standard. 


1825 


268 

833 
394 

414 
277 
280 
290 
293 
337 
438 
437 
453 
634 
563 
721 

1,085 
924 
973 
929 

1,158 
949 
867 
993 
758 
857 


36,448 

45,288 

53,584 

56,304 

37,672 

38,080 

39,440 

39,848 

45,832 

59,568 

59,432 

61,61)8 

86,224 

76,568 

98,056 

147,560 

125,664 

132,328 

126,344 

157,488 

129,064 

117,912 

135,048 

103,088 

116,552 


1850 


769 

1,130 
930 
949 
954 

1,234 

1,160 
938 

1,060 
933 
887 

1,004 
968 
924 

1,040 
793 
991 

1,124 
834 
855 

1,176 
880 
980 

1,075 


104,584 


1826 


1851 


153 680 


1827 


1852 


126,480 
129,064 

129,744 


1828 


1853 


1829 


1854 


1830 

1831 

1832 


1855 

1856 

1857 


167,824 
157,760 
127,508 


1833 


1858 


144,160 


1834 


1859 


126,888 


1835 

1836 

1837 

1838 

1839 


1860 

1861 

1862 

1863 

1864 


120.632 
136,544 
131,648 
125,664 
141,440 


1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1844 


1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 


107,848 
134,776 
152,864 
113,424 
116,280 
159,936 
119,680 
133,280 
146,200 


1845 


1846 

1847 

1848 


1871 

1872 

1873 


1849 





74 



COFFEE. 



A change in tlie manner of keeping trade statistics since 1873 
renders it impossible to present the production by years after that 
date, as the quantity imported into Java cannot be ascertained. 

A glance over the preceding table shows that from 1833 
there was a very rapid increase in production, due to measures, 
calculated to push the industry, that were carried out under the 
able administration of Governor General Yan Den Bosch, The 
largest crop on record is that of 1855, which reached nearly 
168,000,000 pounds. Twelve times within a period of forty 
years the crop has exceeded one million piculs, dropping as low as 
758,000 piculs in 1848 ; averaging 1,002,600 piculs in 1840-50 ; 
1,057,900 piculs in 1850-60, and 1,081,700 piculs in 1860-70. The 
quantity delivered to the government, added to the private pro- 
duction of Java made available an average supply of 1,500,000 
piculs annually from 1870 to 1880, The following detailed state- 
ment of the quantity delivered to the government from 1833 to 
1880 is taken from the official returns, giving the amount in 
thousands of piculs : 



Year. 


Government ac- 
count. In thou- 
sands of Piculs. 


Private account. 
In thousands of 
Piculs (136 lbs.). 


Total, in thousands 
of Piculs. 


Total, in thousands 
of U. S. Iba. 


1833 


336 






45,696 


1834 


433 
358 
576 


— 




58,753 


1835 


48,688 


1836 


78,336 


1837 


589 







80,104 


1838 


539 


— 




73,304 


1839 


905 







133,080 


1840 


706 


— 




96,016 


1841 


877 


— 




119,373 


1843 


975 


— 




133,600 


1843 


1,048 


— 




143,538 


1844 


956 


— 




130,016 


1845 


637 


— 




86,633 


1846 


880 


— 




119,680 


1847 


773 


— 




104,993 


1848 


860 


— 




116,960 


1849 


461 


67 


538 


71,808 


1850 


977 


135 


1,103 


149,873 


1851 ... 


1,069 


83 


1,151 


156,536 


1853 


880 


113 


993 


134,913 


1853 


686 


98 


784 


106,634 


1854 


1,084 


119 


1,303 


163,608 


1855 


1,165 

747 


108 
61 


1,373 
808 


173,138 


1856 


109,888 



THE JAVA BERRY. 



75 





Government ac- 


Private account. 




Total, in thousands 


Tear. 


count. In thou- 
sands of Piculs. 


In thousands of 
Piculs (136 lbs.). 


of Piculs. 


of U. S. lbs. 


1857 


901 


135 


1,036 


140,896 


1858 


908 


95 


1,003 


136,403 


1859 


735 
928 
896 


83 
120 
110 


818 
1,048 
1,006 


111,248 


1860 


142,528 


1861 


136,816 


1862 


659 


89 


748 


101,728 


1863 


1,113 


138 


1,251 


170,136 


1864 


434 


101 


535 


72,760 


1865 


941 


123 


1,004 


144,704 


1866 


1,087 


93 


1,180 


160,480 


1867 


920 


139 


1,059 


144,024 


1868 


558 


131 


689 


93,704 


1869 


963 
986 


144 
153 


1,106 
1,139 


150,416 


1870 


154,904 


1871 


446 


121 


507 


77,113 


1872 


984 


185 


1,169 


158,984 


1873 


774 


153 


926 


125,936 


1874 


1,032 


180 


1,212 


164,833 


1875 


494 


123 


616 


83.776 


1876 


1,266 


203 


1,469 


199,784 


1877 


875 


185 


1,060 


144,160 


1878 


857 


116 


973 


132,328 


1879 


1,250 
1833 to 1880. . . 


394 


1,644 


203,584 




5,774,280 











The estimate of the government crop of 1880 is 618,055 piculs. 
That of private coffee cannot be given in figures, but it is thought 
that it will equal or possibly exceed that of 18T9. The amount of 
private coffee given for 1879 includes Palembang and Bali coffee 
exported from Java, but to what extent cannot be shown. From 
the above statement, it appears that from 1833 to 1880 inclu- 
sive, not far from six thousand million pounds, or 2,078,571 
tons of government and private coffee were furnished to the 
world by the island of Java, the bulk of which passed through 
the hands of the Maatschappy and was consumed in Western 
Europe. 

Thus far the story of Java coffee has been partially told, and 
therefore we will pass in the next chapter to an account of the rise 
and progress of the industry upon the island of Sumatra and 
other portions of the Dutch East Indies, first stopping to consider 
the imports of Java coffee into the United States. 



76 



COFFEE. 



Irrvportation of Java and Singapore Coffee into the United States 
{Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Pockets. 


Tons. 


Java from 


Holland. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


1866 


121,669 

140,277 
237,617 
230,726 
266,510 
441,452 
410,158 
167,906 
277,920 
355,952 
289,103 
297,732 
251,243 
302,586 
559,992 

290,056 

335,404 


2,202 
8,821 
5,375 
6,066 

7,846 

11.330 

10,069 

5,084 

8.210 

10,783 

8,502 

8,639 

7,291 

8,781 

16,251 

8,021 

9,494 


21,727 
1,291 

17,549 
4,123 
1,306 

16,538 
8,066 
1,456 
7,078 
1,927 

797 

4.066 

22,311 

6,714 

7,663 

6,895 


1,306 


1867 


78 


1868 


1,141 


1869 


236 


1870 


78 


1871 ■ 


960 


1872 

1873 


486 
91 


1874 


310 


1875 


112 


1876 




1877 


48 


1878 


236 


1879 


1,295 


1880 

Average for 15 years, 
1866-1881 


195 
438 


Average for 10 years, 
1871-1880 


373 







The Java crop of 1880 fell largely short of that of previous 
years, but the enormous Brazil crop and the large crops in Cen- 
tral America will tend to prevent a return to what must be con- 
sidered the artificially high prices of 1875 to 1880. 



CHAPTER XI. 

SUMATRA, AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 

The island of Sumatra lies directly under the equator, stretch- 
ing from northeast to fo ithwest, with an area of 108,000 square 
miles. It is 1,040 miles in length, and measures from 60 to 266 
miles in breadth, being the second largest of the Malayan group. 
A chain of mountains runs from one extremity of the island to the 
other, reaching an altitude of from 1,550 feet to 6,000 feet, often 
dividing into double and treble ranges. A score of lofty volcanic 
cones rear their heads 6,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea-level. 
Between the ranges are vast plateaux which are thickly populated, 
owing to the fine climate. Between the sea-shore and the moun- 
tains on the west coast there are narrow stretches of low land in- 
terspersed with spurs, which reach the shore in the form of bold, 
overhanging cliffs. Slow-running rivers wind their way through 
broad alluvial plains, which are covered with jungle and forest. 
Lakes of great beauty lie hid away amidst the mountains. In 
1666 Padang came under the rule of the Netherlands, and so con- 
tinued until 1T95, when the British gained control, holding it 
until 1819, when it again passed under Dutch rule. 

A small quantity of coffee was produced on the west coast of 
Sumatra in the eighteenth century, but owing to careless cultiva- 
tion the product was of poor quality. 

From the only available authorities, which are not over re- 
liable, we learn that, in the year 1800, there were exported 2,000 
piculs (272,000 pounds), but from that date until 1820 the exports 
were of small account. From 1820 to 1830 an average of about 
4,000,000 pounds were exported annually, rising to between 11,- 
000,000 and 12,000,000 pounds annually from 1836 to 1845. 

In 1847 the Dutch government decreed that all coffee grown 



78 COFFEE. 

in Sumatra slionld be delivered to the government at a fixed price, 
and further, " that all coifee delivered to government shall be sold 
at Padang, by public auction, to the highest bidder." Within 
the last thirty -five years the cultivation of coffee has been fos- 
tered by the government, which leased land to private planters. 
Prior to 1878 the quantity of free coffee exported was compara- 
tively small, while since that time it has rapidly increased, as new 
plantations came into bearing. The colonial report of 1878 placed 
the crop raised on private plantations in Sumatra, in 1877, at 
1,091 piculs (151,376 pounds). For the last three years the quan- 
tity raised on private account in Java and Sumatra is about one- 
fifth to one-sixth the government crop, the average for the past 
three years being in Java 168,000 piculs (22,848,000 pounds), 
free, against 999,000 piculs (135,864,000 pounds), government; 
and in Sumatra 20,000 piculs (2,720,000 pounds), free, against 
127,000 piculs (17,272,000 pounds), government coffee. These 
figures indicate a rapid growth in the development of private 
plantations. The Sumatra crop, like that of all coffee-producing 
countries, shows a great variation, ranging, Avithin the past eight 
years, from 12,500,000 pounds to 24,000,"oOO pounds. The Java 
crop also varies greatly; that of 1880 is estimated to fall 500,000 
piculs below that of the previous year. 

The leaf disease which has largely reduced the Ceylon crop, 
made its appearance in Sumatra in the summer of 1876. Its 
progress has been described as follows by M. Scheffer : 

" Ordinarily it is not noticed except when the parasitic plant 
is in fructification. The lower surface of the leaves is then cov- 
ered with a yellow-orange dust, which can be easily removed with 
the hand. This dust is formed by the spores, which afterward 
germinate and produce a large quantity of filaments (mycelium), 
which penetrate the stomata, and which develop and ramify 
speedily in the intercellular ducts. Some of these filaments again 
leave the interior of the leaf and produce new fruit. The myce- 
lium soon extends not only over the entire surface of the leaf, but 
over the stem. In the latter case it is very difficult to identify 
the disease, but it appears that a plant once infected can never be 
cured. Mr. Thwaites, when in 1874 the planters of Ceylon be- 
lieved they had got rid of the evil, could not find a single tree un- 



SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. T9 

infected. During a certain period, however, the mycelium ap- 
pears not to do much injury to the trees, until periodically, at 
different places and different seasons, under the influences of cir- 
cun^gtances entirely unknown, it begins to fructify abundantly. 
The spores produce innumerable new filaments, which, by their 
rapid growth, require abundant nourishment, which they draw 
from the shrub. The consequence is that the leaves, the young 
berries, and the extremities of the stems wither and finally die. 
The tree usually produces fresh shoots, but the disease immedi- 
ately renews its attacks ; the young leaves again die. The second 
attack is very dangerous, and few plants, without a long enough 
respite, survive the third. The general public do not believe in 
the attack except when the spores are visible, but the presence of 
the fungus can be recognized at other times also, and with the 
naked eye. It may then be noticed on the leaves in almost trans- 
parent spots, which are caused by the destruction of the cellular 
tissues of the leaves, on which the filaments of the mycelium feed. 
Naturally, the tree then feels the influence of the parasite, but 
not to such an extent as to reduce perceptibly the yield. The case 
is very different when the spores appear. 

" One consolatory fact, which has been more and more con- 
firmed, is that by high cultivation the trees can offer more resist- 
ance to the disease. At first it was asserted that manuring favored 
the progress of the disease, but this has not been proved, and 
a priori it would be difficult to admit it. There is no remedy 
known for this disease, and one cannot be discovered. The pre- 
servatives will be to uproot and burn the infected trees, and to 
prohibit the introduction of coffee from places where the disease 
exists. But after all, high cultivation is the best preservative. In 
what manner and at what period the disease appeared in Sumatra, 
or indeed whether it was introduced, it is impossible to say, and 
probably sooner or later it will make its appearance in Java also. 
Some of the natives asserted that long ago they noticed it in Su- 
matra, but very rarely, and especially when a very long drought 
succeeded to constant and superabundant rains. Hitherto it seems 
to have restricted itself to the Pandangsche Bovenlanden resi- 
dency, and the Ayer Bangles district. In that residency it has now 
been recognized in the districts of the Limapoeloe Kotas, Pang- 



80 



COFFEE. 



Icalan, Agam, 2 and 13 Kotas (sub-district Soepajang), Tanah 
Datar, Batipoe, and X Kotas. In some localities the young leaves, 
which came out after the first attack, M^ere again affected. In 
other places, however, they remained healthy. There has been no 
case known of a third attack in Sumatra. It seems that the dis- 
ease has not as yet done much damage to the crop. This is prob- 
ably because the berries were scarcely ripe when the disease ap- 
peared for the first time. In Sumatra also it has been proved 
that higli cultivation, manure, etc., have a salutary influence on 
the course of the disease. The news which is now received from 
all parts is very reassuring. However, it is possible that the fun- 
gus still exists in the coffee-trees, and that at some future time it 
ma}^ develop again from some causes as yet unknown to us." 

Mr. Scheffer also calls attention to another disease, called the 
coffee-root disease, which appears on the roots, and is apparently 
the work of an insect. Its work has assumed a serious character 
in the Mandheling and Ankola districts, and also in central Java. 
It is fatal to the trees. 

In the year 1852 the government inaugurated quarterly auc- 
tions, which have been regularly held since that date. The fol- 
lowing is the government statement of the Sumatra crop from 
1852 to 1879. 



Year. 


Piculs. 


U. S. pounds. 


Year. 


Piculs. 


IT. S. pounds. 


1852 


122,900 


16,714,400 


1866 


134,000 


18,224,000 


1853 


119.400 


16,238,400 


1867 


158,400 


21,542,400 


1854 


131,500 


17,884,000 


1868 


142,800 


19,420,800 


1855 


127,500 


17,340,000 


1869 


141,900 


19,298,400 


1856 


128,300 


17,448,800 


1870 


163,800 


22,276,800 


1857 


190,900 


25,962,400 


1871 


156,500 


21,284,000 


1858 


129,100 


17,557,600 


1872 


90,800 


12,348,800 


1859 


140,600 


19,121,600 


1873 


108,500 


14,756,000 


1860 


157,600 


21,433,600 


1874 


131,500 


17,884,000 


1861 


123,800 


16,836,800 


1875 


145,000 


19,720,000 


18C3 


159,100 


21,637,600 


1876 


102,900 


13,994,400 


1863 


125,600 


17,081,600 


1877 


175,000 


23,800,000 


1864 


187,500 


25,500,000 


1878 


104,000 


14,144,000 


1865 


123,700 


16,813,2U0 


1879 


121,860 


16,572,960 



The exports of Padang coffee from 1858 to 1880, as reported 
by Messrs. Dummler & Co., were as follows : 



SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 



81 



Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


riculs. 


Pounds. 


1858 


192,347 


26,159,192 


1872 


110,838 


15,073,968 


1859 


119,777 


16,289,672 


1873 


97,805 


13,301,480 


1860 


124,199 


16,891,064 


1874 


128,557 


17,483,752 


1861 


169,928 


23,110,208 


1875 


160,844 


21,874,784 


1862 


149,634 


20,350,224 


1876 


141,780 


19,282,080 


1863 


129,357 


17,592,552 


1877 


141,854 


19,292,144 


1864 


161,058 


21,903,888 


1878 


124,175 


16,887,800 


1865 


154,170 


20,9t'.7,120 


1879 


104.504 


14,212,544 


1866 


146,574 


19,934,064 


1880 


134,633 


18,310,088 


1867 


112,609 

189,891 


15,314,824 
25,825,176 








1868 






1869 


168,320 


22,891,520 


Total... 


3,286,931 


447,022,616 


1870 


121,099 


16,469,464 


Average, 






1871 


202,978 


27,605,008 


per year. 


142,910 


19,435,766 



The average export per annum for the five years, 1876 to 1880, 
was 129,389 piculs, equivalent to 17,596,904 pounds, or 7,856 
tons. The distribution of this quantity was as follows : 





1880. 
Piculs. 


18T9. 
Piculs. 


1ST8, 
Piculs. 


1877. 
Piculs. 


1876. 
Piculs. 


America (Atlantic Coast) 

California. 


126,279 
2,916 
3,971 

1,464 
3 

134,633 


99,385 

2,164 
2,244 

711 
104,504 


94,964 
3,775 

20,418 
1,000 
4,018 


106,205 
24,876 
10,773 


98,823 


Holland 

France 


33,593 


Java 


9,364 


Coromandel Coast 








Total 


124,175 


141,854 


141,780 







CELEBES. 

In 1822, according to a book of travel published in 1856 by 
P. Bleeker, the Island of Celebes delivered to the government 
80 piculs (10,880 pounds) of coffee. From 1826 to 1833, inclu- 
sive, the crop averaged 3,860 piculs (524,960 pounds). In 1833 
it had reached 6,000 piculs (816,000 pounds) ; in 1834, 10,000 
piculs (1,360,000 pounds), dropping to 4,000 piculs (544,000 
pounds) in 1835. From that date until 1852 the crop varied 
from 2,500 piculs (340,000 pounds) to 13,000 piculs (1,768,000 
pounds). The colonial reports state that the deliveries to the 
government from 1852 were as follows : 
6 



83 



COFFEE. 



Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds, v. S. 


Year. 


Pioula. 


Pounds, U. S. 


1852 


7,700 


1,047,200 


1866 


16,000 


2,176,000 


1853 


16,000 


2,176,000 


1867 


13,000 


1,768,000 


1854 


23,000 


3,128,000 


1868 


7,000 


952,000 


1855 


25,000 


3,400,000 


1869 


38,000 


5,088,000 


1856 


27,000 


3,672.000 


1870 


13,000 


1.768,000 


1857 


15,000 


2,040,000 


1871 


8,000 


1,088,000 


1858 


23,000 


3,128.000 


1872 


6,500 


884.000 


1859 


22,000 


2,992,000 


1873 


11,000 


1,496,000 


1860 


15,000 


2,040,000 


1874 


16,000 


2,176,000 


1861 


15,000 


2,040,000 


1875 


10,600 


1,441,600 


1863 


7,600 


1,033,600 


1876 


8,000 


1,088,000 


1863 


14,000 


1,904,000 


1877 


14.000 


1,904,000 


1864 


13,000 


1,768,000 


1878 


36,000 


4,896,000 


1865 


37,000 


5,032,000 


1879 


13,100 


1,781,600 



The product of the province of Menado, in the northern part 
of Celebes, is in high favor in the Holland market, where it com- 
mands a high price, selling for more money than any other kind 
of Java coffee. Macassar is the shipping port for the southern 
part of the island, and may be called the main point of shipment 
for the products of the small adjacent islands. The export from 
this port has increased rapidly, as will be seen by the following 
figures, which will be used in obtaining a statement of the average 
amount of coffee available as Java coffee. 



Year. 


In thousands 
of piculs. 


In thousands of 
U. S. pounds. 


Year. 


In thousands 
of piculs. 


In thousands of 
U. S. pounds. 


1857 


27 
21 
43 
24 
21 
38 
23 
24 
29 
50 
47 
45 


3,672 
2,856 
5,848 
3,264 
2,856 
5,168 
8,128 
3,264 
3,944 
6,800 
6,392 
6,120 


1769 


53 

67 

50 

62 

84 

61 

110 

112 

115 

124 

125 


7,208 


1858 


1870 


9,112 


1859 


1871 


0,800 


1860 


1872 


8,432 


1861 


1873 


11,424 


1862 


1874 


8,296 


1863 


1875 


14,960 


1864 


1876 


15,233 


1865 


1877 


15,640 


1866 


1878 


16,864 


1867 


1879 


17,000 


1868 











Dr. Yan Den Berg, President of the Java Bank, Batavia, 
estimates the entire production in the Dutch East Indies, on an 
average of the three years, 1876-1878, as follows : 



SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 



83 





Piculs. 


In thousands of 
U. S. pounds. 


Java, for government 

Java., for private account 


999,000 
168,000 
127,000 
20,000 
20.000 
95,000 
50,000 


135,804 

23,848 


Sumatra, for government 


17,273 


Sumatra, for private account 


2.720 


Celebes, for government 


2,720 


Celebes, for private account 


13,920 


Cali, and other small islands 


6,800 






Average total 


1,479,000 


201,144 







From the above it will be seen that there were placed at the 
disposal of the government in each of the three years an average 
of 1,146,000 piculs (155,856,000 pounds), of which 333,000 piculs 
(45,288,000 pounds) were produced on private plantations. The 
average in 1866-68, ten years previous, was 1,012,000 piculs 
(137,632,000 pounds) government; 201,000 piculs (27,336,000 
pounds) private account, or a total of 1,213,000 piculs (164,968,000 
pounds), showing an increase in the crop, during the ten years, 
of 266,000 piculs (36,176,000 pounds), or 21^ per cent. 

The term "Old Government Java" arises from the fact that 
the Dutch government formerly held considerable quantities for 
a long time before selling it, and as this was usually of very good 
quality, " Old Government Java " soon became a trade term denot- 
ing the highest quality. Of late years, however, this term has 
been used somewhat indiscriminately to designate all brown Java, 
whether packed in the old style of government bag containing 
about one hundred and tliirty-six pounds, -or in the smaller grass 
mat holding one-half picul (65 to 68 pounds), the latter style 
being preferred in the American market. No other coifee ac- 
quires, except by artificial means, the dark yellowish brown shade 
that marks tlie Java and Sumatra bean, which color governs, 
in a great measure, its commercial value. Another very good 
indication of genuineness is the size of the bean, which is con- 
siderably larger than that of other kinds of coffee, excepting 
Liberian. There is, however, some coifee produced in the other 
islands of the Malay Archipelago which does not differ materially 
in size of bean or general appearance, but which, as a rule, is in- 
ferior in flavor; this is packed in grass mats of the same 



84 COFFEE. 

■weight and style as tlie genuine Java and Sumatra coffee. Im- 
porters generally sell these various kinds, and also the inferior 
kinds grown on the islands of Java and Sumatra, for wiiat they 
really are and at prices considerably below those obtained for the 
finest kinds. The wholesale and retail dealers, however, through 
whose hands such kinds afterwards pass may not care to remember 
the place of production, or the fact that the price which they paid 
was below the market price for fine goods ; so, under the pressure 
of excessive competition, and the necessity of in some way carving 
out a profit, the article is finally represented to be what it is not, 
and the consumer is swindled. 

In the producing islands the coffee is transported by contract 
to the warehouses, where, at stated periods, it is sold at auction by 
the Maatschappy, generally in lots of two hundred piculs. The 
two islands are divided into districts, Java having twenty-three, 
with Batavia as the principal shipping port ; Sumatra is divided 
into " residences," which are subdivided into districts. Padang 
is the chief port from which the United States receives its sup- 
plies ; Benkoelen is the principal shipping port for Holland. The 
coffee takes its name from the district in which it is grown, and 
varies greatl}^ in quality. Upon the mats there is branded the 
initial letter of the importing house, and also a letter or letters 
designating the district where grown, as JB for Ayer Bangles. 
The peculiar, slightly musty smell that marks Padang Java is 
acquired on the voyage. The passage through the tropics and 
the sweating the coffee undergoes is believed to improve the 
quality. The true Java bean is not, on an average, quite as large 
and in color not as brown as the Sumatra, although both become 
darker and more mellow with age. At the time of shipment all 
Java coffee is of a light green shade, but during the long voyage 
through the tropics this gradually changes to a yellowish brown, 
and the deeper this color the higher the price it commands. For 
most consumers age improves the drinking qualities, and as color 
is popularly regarded as an indication of age, that coffee which 
is the brownest in color is generally regarded as the best. Some 
of the best judges, however, regard the drinking qualities of the 
light Javas as fully equal to those of the very dark brown. 

As the Java crop varies in quality from year to year, it is im- 



SUMATRA AND OTHER JAVA SORTS. 



85 



possible to ascribe to. any one sort the virtue of being preemi- 
nently the best. Two years ago Preanger was regarded as the best 
of the Java crop that conies into the port of New York, l)ut this 
year it ranks below several others in point of merit. The follow- 
ing list, with an estimate of the quantity of coffee raised in each 
district on the Island of Java, gives some of the names of the 
different varieties that are from time to time sold on the New 
York market, together with the estimated crop of each district 
for 1879 : 

Crop of 
piculs. 

36,000 
4,400 
19,650 
36,000 
80,210 
50,000 
4,000 
72,200 
19,400 



Name. 



1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 



Crop of 
piculs. 

Bantam 10,000 

Krawang 1,430 

Preanger Pogent- 

schappen 320,000 

Cheribon 37,240 

Tagal 83,000 

Pekalongan 28,500 

Samarang 60,000 

Japara 2,610 

Soerbaya 7,50(T 

Passoeroean. 300,000 

Probolincro 35,000 



Name. 



12. Bekoeki 

13. Ban joe wangle 

14. Banjoemas . . . 

15. Bageten 

Kadoe 

Sarakarta . . . . 
Djokdjakarta , 

Madioen 

Kediri 



Total piculs.. 1,207,140 



In Holland, to which country the bulk of the Java crop is ex- 
ported, the grades are recognized as follows : 



West India preparation : 
Extra green. 
Fine green. 
Good green. 
Green. 



Java coffee : 
Brown. 
Light brown. 
High yellow. 
Yellow. 
Yellowish. 

Triage : Ordinary broken with much black 
Ordinary broken with little black. 



Java coffee : 

Light yellowish. 

Fine blue. 

Blue. 

Bluish. 
Passoeroean : 
Green. 



Good greenish. 
Greenish. 
Pale greenish. 



86 



COFFEE. 



1. Mandheling. 

2. Ayer Bangles. 

3. Ankola. 



Menado is considered to be one of tlie finest, if not the finest 
coffee, but the quality varies more or less every year. The crop 
* of 1880-81 was 12,500 piculs, against 25,000 piculs in 1879-80. 

The product of the Island of Sumatra runs more uniform as 
to quality, and the following list gives the product of the dif- 
ferent districts in the order in which it has ranked in quality in 
the Xew York market for many years : 

4. Painan. 

5. Interior. 

6. Triage. 

The triage or trash rarely comes to the United States, being 
sent generally to the China market. 

SINGAPORE JAVA 

is coffee shipped from the English free port of that name. Singa- 
pore is situated on a small island, eight or ten miles square, and 
not of itself particularly fertile ; yet this place is the great empo- 
rium for the productions of the whole Malayan Peninsula and 
Archipelago, comprising hundreds of islands, many of them of 
large size, and upon which many valuable and important articles 
are produced. The coffee exported from Singapore is raised in 
the small islands of Netherlands India, and the Philippine Islands. 
It does not possess the fine flavor and intrinsic value of Padang 
and Batavia Java, and some years it is of decidedly inferior 
quality. All Java coffee received here, and which was produced 
free from the restrictions imposed by the government, is known 
as " free coffee." 

The exports from Singapore were, according to the Singapore 
market report as follows : 



To GrBEAT BRITAIN. 


To United States. 


Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds. 


1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


16,827 
20,292 
16.115 
8,379 
16,462 
19,948 


2.288,472 
2,759,712 
2,191.640 
1,139.544 

2,238,832 
2,712,928 


1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


16,588 

13,947 

5.452 

9,248 

22,324 

6,277 


2,255,968 
1.896,792 

741,472 
1,257,728 
3,036,064 

853,672 



PHILIPPINES. 



87 



There were exported from Penang to the Continent of Eu- 
rope the following quantities : 



Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Piculs. 


Pounds. 


1875 

1876...... 

1877 


13,134 

9,448 

31,691 


1.786,224 
1,284,928 
4,309,976 


1878 

18Tt> 

1880 


11,958 
22,795 
15,583 


1,626,288 
3,100,120 
2,119,2a8 



As before stated, the coffee exported from Singapore is grown 
on the neighboring islands, and the deficiency of statistics makes 
any estimate of the production in the Philippine islands more or 
less liable to question. Dr. Van Den Berg makes the average pro- 
duction of the Philippines as follows, in piculs of 125 Amsterdam 
pounds (U. S. pounds 136). 

Philippines. 



1856 to 1858. 



Piculs. Pounds. 

23,000 2,992,000 



1866 to 18G8. 



Piculs. Pounds. 

35,000 4,760,000 



1876 to 1878. 



Piculs. Pounds. 

55,000 7,480,000 



The Philippine Islands are said to be peculiarly adapted to 
the raising of coffee, producing, with proper cultivation and prepa- 
ration, a berry M'hich is equal, if not superior, m flavor and aroma, 
to the Java berry. Public attention was for a time turned with 
great earnestness to the development of this industry, and rewards 
were offered by the Economical Society of the Island of Luzon for 
the best and largest plantations. But, after a prize of $10,000 had 
been awarded, the plantations were suffered to run to waste, and 
their aggregate yield does not now exceed 3,300 tons per annum. 

From various sources we gather the following figures, showing 
the exports from Manila, 1870-1880 inclusive, omitting 1872, the 
figures for which year are not obtainable : 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Pounds. 


Tons. 


1870 

1871 

1873 

1874 

1875 


4,786,600 
7,471.800 
7,868,700 
6.428,800 
9,326,800 


2.137 
3,336 
3,513 
2,870 
4,164 


1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


8,024,380 
8,553.580 
5,359,480 
9,014,740 
11,759,860- 


3,582 
3,819 
2,393 
4,025 
5,SoO- 



88 



COFFEE. 



The exports from Manila, Cebu, and Iloilo in 1879 were 64,391 
piculs, and in 1880, 83,999 piculs (140 lbs.) distributed as follows: 
to the United States, 645 piculs ; to Great Britain, 7,747 piculs ; 
to the Continent of Europe, 68,942 piculs ; to Singapore, 3,639 
piculs ; to China, 3,026 piculs. Coffee pays an export duty of 
28^ cents per picul. 

Importation of Manila Coffee into the United States {Atlantio 
Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Packages. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Packages. 


Tons. 


1866 


7,084 

354 

5,054 

2,267 

1,010 

1,605 

813 

62 


220 

14 

240 

128 

32 

87 

48 

4 


1874 


1,336 
3,609 

70 
299 


84 


1867 


1875 


173 


1868 


1876 




1869 


1877 




1870 


1878 




1871 


1879 


4 


1873 


1880 


8 


1873 







Average for fifteen years, 1866-1881 1,571 packages, 69 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-1880 779 " 41 " 



The direct receipts of Java and Sumatra coffee in New York 
have been as follows : 



year. 


Bags. 


Pockets, 
mats, etc. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Bags. 


Pockets, 
mats, etc. 


Pounds. 


1857 




38,261 


1,965,518 


1871 


1,239 


319,507 


18,445,036 


1858 


2,159 


70,343 


3,483,152 


1872 


629 


324,025 


17,923,979 


1859 


39 


71,715 


4,140,468 


1873 


1,000 


145,238 


9,933,833 


1860 


166 


27,513 


1,533,942 


1874 


780 


250.812 


16.951,347 


1861 




40,473 


2,013,024 


1875* 


12,079 


290,665 


20,924,071 


1863 


3 


44,201 


2,303,920 


1876 


551 


276,811 


18,232,393 


1863 




10,150 


839,405 


1877 




224,379 


15,161,930 


1864 




104,075 


6,384,908 




Macassar. 


32,514 


2,283,610 


1865 


875 


689 


178,000 


1878 




247,665 


16,329,740 


1866 




70.754 


2,665,837 




Macassar. 


341 


50,013 


1867 


303 


75,816 


5,102,660 


1879 




?20,286 


13,098,586 


1868 


185 


135,881 


6,854,475 




Macassar. 


44,070 


2,709,077 


1869 




139,357 


8,118,808 


1880 




463,836 


28,757,833 


1870 


53 


108,085 


6,952,443 




Macassar. 


51,736 


3,207,633 



• Including Macassar. 



PHILIPPINES. 



89 



The receipts of Java at New York from Rotterdam and 
Amsterdam have been as follows : 



Year. 



1857 

1858 

1859 , 

1860 

1861 

1862 

18G3 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867, 3 casks, 
1868 



Bags. 


Pounds. 


3,183 


451,599 


51.211 


7,144,590 


2.933 


408,755 


4,401 


594,530 


9,215 


1,244.550 


5,508 


746,046 


3,210 


435,291 


2,845 


383,220 


5,708 


770,580 


20,351 


2,745,840 


1,288 


175,680 


5,343 


711,641 



Year. 



1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 , 

1873 

1874, 3,435 mats 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 



Bags. 



805 

600 

1,415 

8,066 

1,456 

3,643 

1,927 

3,447 

797 

4,413 

28,494 

8,381 



108,743 

80,670 

190,754 

1,089,306 

203,226 

696,505 

259,163 

452,802 

106,213 

594,606 

3,987,214 

1,162,607 



In this connection, it will be of interest to note what propor- 
tion the importations of all kinds of Java coffee bear to the total 
imports of coffee into the United States. According to Moring's 
tables, such receipts constituted, in 1876, 7.13 per cent, of the total ; 
1877, 5.75; 1878, 5.16 ; 1879, 5.10; 1880, 9.31— the average for 
five years being 6.48 per cent. ; and yet the fragrant Java is the 
favorite berry throughout a large part of the United States, and 
every storekeeper in sections where it is in favor believes he has 
the genuine article. If we deduct the low grades of Java imported, 
we discover that a very small quantity of fine brown old Govern- 
ment Java is consumed in the United States. 



CHAPTER XII. 



CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 



The great rival of Java in tlie East is Ceylon. The Dutch 
appear to have introduced the plant into the island, then one of 
their colonies, late in the seventeenth century. In the year 1721 
about sixteen pounds of the Ceylon product were sold in the 
Amsterdam market, commanding a higher price than either 
Mocha or Java. The quantity exported was small until 1741, 
when 370,192 (U. S.) pounds were sold in Holland. The low 
prices ruling at this period, taken in connection with full supplies 
from Java, discouraged planting in Ceylon. Between 1751 and 1794 
there were 1,600,806 (U. S.) pounds disposed of in Amsterdam. 
In 1795 the island passed under British control, but the culture did 
not make any notable progress until 1824, when coffee-planting on 
a large scale was commenced by Sir Edward Barnes and Sir 
George Bird. The great development of the industry dates from 
1832 to 1836. Coffee estates sprung up on all sides, and, with 
the exception of a short pause from 1849 to 1850, owing to com- 
mercial depression, they have continued to increase ever since. 
There were, in 1877, in Ceylon, 1,357 coffee plantations owned by 
Europeans, and the area of coffee lands actually under cultivation 
is stated to have been 272,243 acres, to which must be added an 
estimated area of 50,000 to 70,000 acres worked by the natives. 

As far back as 1806 we find the record of the export of 846 
cwts. (94,752 lbs.). The author of a work published in 1817, en- 
titled, " A Yiew of the Agricultural, Commercial, and Financial 
Interests of Ceylon," reported the export in 1810 to be 217,500 
lbs. ; 1813, 216,500 lbs. According to Martin's "History of the 
Colonies of the British Empire," the yield from 1830 to 1836 
inclusive was as follows : 



CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 



91 



Year. 


Bushels. 


Pounds. 
(60 lbs. to bushel.) 


Year. 


Bushels. 


Pounds. 
(60 lbs. to bushel.) 


1830 

1831 

1832 

1833 


28,938 
32,756 
61,110 

88,318 


1,536,280 
1,965,360 
3,666,600 
5,399,080 


1834. . . . 
1835. . . . 

1836. . . . 


138,800 
161,975 
190,161 


8,328,000 

9,736,500 

11,409,660 



The exports from 1840 to 1857, according to "M'Culloch's 
Commercial Dictionary," were as given below : 



Year. 


Cwts. 


U. S. lbs. 


Year. 


Cwts. 


U. S. lbs. 


1840 


41,863 


4,688,656 


1849.... 


280,010 


31,361,120 


1841 


68,206 


7,639,072 


1850. . . . 


373,593 


41,843,416 


1843 


80,584 


9,035,408 


1851 


278,473 


31,188,976 


1843 


119,805 


13,418,160 


1852. . . . 


349,957 


39,195,184 


1844 


94,847 


10,622,864 


1853.... 


373,379 


41,706,448 


1845 


133,957 


15,003,184 


1854.... 


328,971 


36,844,753 


1846 


178,603 


20,003,536 


1855.... 


506,540 


56,733,480 


1847 


173,893 


19,475.904 


1856. . . . 


440,819 


49,371,738 


1848 


293,321 


33,840,753 









The further progress of coffee raising is shown by the follow- 
ing table, taken from the " Ceylon Directory and Almanac " for 
1878, showing the development of the industry : 



To 


tal acres 






$ ■ 


6 S 


highest 
ns per 
iddling 
n coffee 
1. 


Vpnr P 


anted or 


Plantation coffee exported for 


2^ 


»s 


■o .S e o o 


xear. ^ 


pened for 


season ending 10th October. 


■S.S 


U"" 


jwest ar 
quota 
cwt. of 
plan tat 
in Lone 


c 


jffee. 






Eg 


iii 










w 


■< 


J 




Acres. 


Cwts. 


Lbs. 


Acres. 


Cwts. 


E. d. 8. d. 


1856 


80,950 


325.438 


36,449,056 


64,000 


5.08 


60 to 80 


1863 s 


f 150,000 


476,824 


53,404,288 


130,000 


3.66 


75 6 to 93 


1863 1 


153,0J0 


649,194 


72,709,728 


136,000 


4.77 


75 to 117 


1864 1 


155,500 


574,476 


64,341,313 


140,000 


4.10 


70 to 114 


1865.,.. S J 


160,000 


714,259 


79,997,008 


146,000 


4.89 


80 to 88 


181)6 a 


160,000 


676,448 


75,763,176 


150,000 


4.50 


71 to 89 


1867 1 


168,000 


720,174 


80,659,498 


152,000 


4.73 


72 to 86 


1868 ^ 


176,000 


788,737 


88,338,544 


155,500 


5.07 


66 to 82 


1869 


176,467 


835,686 


93,596,833 


160,000 


5.32 


68 to 84 


1870 Es. 


185,000 


885,728 


99,201,536 


160,000 


5.53 


60 to 82 


1871 


195,637 


814,710 


91,347,530 


168,000 


4.84 


60 to 84 


1873 


206,000 


576,878 


64,610,336 


176,000 


3.27 


74 to 87 


1873 


219,974 


860,360 


96,360,320 


177,000 


4.85 


86 to 119 


1874 


237,345 


509,329 


57,044,848 


185,000 


2.75 


100 to 135 


1875 


249,604 


873,654 


97,849,248 


195,000 


4.48 


90 to 115 


1876 


260,000 


603,929 


67,642,048 


203,000 


2.97 


99 to 118 


1877 


272,243 


850,911 


95,302,032 


312,000 


4.01 


99 to 121 



92 



COFFEE. 



The largest export of plantation coffee and the maximum 
average rate of production, 5^ cwts. (616 lbs.) per acre for the 
country, were obtained in 1870. The effects of leaf disease, which 
had that season made its appearance all over the coffee districts, 
were at once manifested in the falling off in the succeeding year, 
and the alternate bad and average crops since realized, notwith- 
standing the greatly increased area in cultivation. 

In the year 1878 the crop fell behind that of the previous year 
nearly thirty-four per cent. ; in 1879 it rose above the average for 
eight years, but again fell 125,313 cwts. behind in 1880. The 
exports from Ceylon for the past eight years have been as follows : 





Coffee.— Cwts. 


Tons. 




Year. 


Plantation. 


Native. 


Total. 


Pounds, 


1880 


622,306 
767,293 
551,046 
851,201 
626,636 
855,661 
521,193 
861,575 


47,308 
57,216 
69,246 
91,846 
93,791 

113,0:J3 
90,149 

133,918 


669,614 
824,509 
620,292 
943,047 
720,427 
968,694 
617,342 
995,493 


33,481 
41.225 
31,015 
47,152 
36,021 
48,435 
30,867 
49,775 


74,996,768 


1879 


92,345,008 


1878 


69,472 704 


1877 


105,621,264 


1876 


80,687,824 


1875 


108,493,728 


1874 


69,142,304 


1873 


111,495,216 


Total 

Average 


5,656,911 

707,113 


702.507 

87,813 


6,359,418 
794,927 


317,971 
39,746 


712,254,816 
89,031,824 



It will be observed that while the out-turn of plantation coffee 
varies greatly, one season falling and another rising, and the past 
season giving a return considerably below the average, in native 
kinds, on the other hand, the export has gone steadily down 
almost year by year, until now Ceylon does not ship much more 
than one-third the quantity of native coffee despatched eight 
years ago. There can be no doubt that the native gardens have 
suffered greatly from leaf disease, more in proportion than well- 
cultivated plantations. 

The value and magnitude of the coffee enterprise in and to 
Ceylon is shown by the following extract from the " Ceylon 
Directory and Almanac : " 

" From the year which is usually taken to represent the com- 
mencement of the coffee enterprise in Ceylon, namely 1837, to 



CULTIVATIOlSr IN CEYLON. 93 

the end of 1877, we calculate that more than thirty million 
pounds sterling ($150,000,000) have been paid in wages to immi- 
grant coolies from Southern India, apart from the very consider- 
able amount given to Kandyan woodcutters, Sinhalese laborers 
in certain districts, carpenters, artisans, cartmen, etc., and indi- 
rectly to the coffee-store employes in Colombo, the women and 
children who pick, and the men wdio prepare and pack, as well as 
those who transport and ship our staple. We are probably on 
the safe side in saying that from fifty to sixty million pounds 
sterling ($250,000,000 to $300,000,000) may be taken as an 
approximation to the total amount of British capital introduced 
into Ceylon in connection with coffee, while our returns show an 
export of ' Plantation coffee ' in the same period of about seven- 
teen million hundredweights, valued by the Customs at forty- 
eight million pounds sterling ($240,000,000), but really worth a 
good deal more. 

" Our calculation is that from each acre of coffee land opened 
here, five native men, women, and children (of Ceylon or South- 
ern India) directly or indirectly derive their means of subsist- 
ence." 

According to the same authority, the total valuation of invest- 
ment in the coffee industry of the island (including factories, 
stores, and offices in town) approached, in 1877, the sum of four- 
teen millions of pounds sterling ($70,000,000). 

" In the young districts, between Great "Western and Adam's 
Peak, over 7,000 acres have been added to the cultivated area 
since last year, averaging sixty new coffee plantations annually 
since 1869, equalling 11-1 square miles, and costing in the conver- 
sion at least one and a-half million pounds sterling. There is a 
large extent of young coffee not yet yielding a first good crop, 
estimated at 54,000 acres under four years of age, or very nearly 
equal to the total in bearing in 1856." 

Between June, 1875, and ISTovember, 1877, there was an addi- 
tion of 22,639 acres to the extent of land opened and cultivated 
in coffee. 

The large and improved estates are almost all situated in the 
hill region of the island, coffee prospering best in Ceylon, as well 
as m other coimtries, at an elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. 



94 COFFEE. 

The cultivation may be carried on, however, at much lower levels, 
and, with a proper system of irrigation and shade, successful 
plantations are worked as low as 1,500 feet. The small gardens 
of the natives are found everywhere, almost to the water's edge. 
The coffee trees are raised from the seed in nurseries, as in Java, 
and transplanted when about a year old ; the distances usually 
observed in the rows being six feet by six, or six feet by five. It 
is claimed that close planting is serviceable in hindering the 
growth of weeds and in enabling the plants to shelter each other 
from the effects of high winds. They are kept pruned much 
lower than in the Dutch island, the average height they are 
allowed to attain being only four feet ; and where the soil is poor, 
or the situation not well sheltered, the cutting of the trees to a 
still lower point is advocated. Weeding, manuring, and all the 
details of scientific cultivation are carefully observed. The value 
of the manures imported in 1876, almost entirely for coffee plan- 
tations, amounted to £140,809, or about $704,045. 

There is, however, a dark spot on the coffee industry in Cey- 
lon. In the year 18G9 the Ceylon planters were disturbed by the 
appearance of a fungus, which two or three years later had be- 
come and has ever since remained a source of serious injury to 
the crops. It is known as the Ilemileia vmtatrix, or leaf disease, 
and is the same pest that annoys the planters in Java and other 
producing points. How to stamp out this coffee-leaf fungus has 
been a leading question in Ceylon for the past ten or twelve 
years. Recently several reports have been made by Government 
and other authorities, but as yet no positive remedy has been 
found that will cause it to disappear. The deficiencies in the 
crop are attributed to this evil, as the disease destroys the leaves, 
and their continued renewal so draws upon the vitality of the 
tree that its power to mature a crop is largely reduced. 

Last year a number of experiments were made by Mr. Schrotty, 
a chemist, who publishes the result in the following opinion : 

" I have all along been of opinion that the relative intensity 
with which coffee-leaf disease develops and spreads on certain 
trees, while on others in close proximity the attack is confined 
to a few of the oldest leaves only, and is easily shaken off, can 
only be due to the sap of one tree being in a certain condition 



CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 95 

more favoral)lo to tlie germination and development of the fun- 
gus, while this same condition of the sap in another tree is almost 
or entirely absent, Neither chemical nor microscopical analysis 
of the sap of the coffee-tree can, I am of opinion, reveal this dif- 
ference of condition, no more than a chemical or microscopical 
analysis could find any difference between the blood of a healthy 
man and of one who suffers from malarious fever, due also, as you 
will remember, to the action of a minute fungus, according to 
recent discoveries. But I hold that differences of condition of the 
sap could be artificially created by the diffusion through the sys- 
tem of the trees of different chemicals suited for the purpose. 
Repeated trials had conclusively proved that this could not be 
done through the medium of the rootlets, the peculiar food-selec- 
tive properties of which completely defeated the attempt to physic 
the trees through the soil, and I adopted, therefore, a novel plan 
of inducing absorption of different substances into the sap of the 
plant through the cambium of the stem, and, being satisfied that 
a certain absorption did take place in all but very thickly barked 
trees, I have adopted this method in my experiments on coffee- 
trees." 

Mr. Schrotty's investigations did not result in finding a rem- 
edy, but it was found that some of the materials injected by him 
into the plant checked the progress of the fungus, and thus en- 
couraged further experiments. Opinions vary, as evidenced by 
the following extract from a letter which appeared in the Ceylon 
Observer, of December 15, 1880 : 

" Depend upon it the leaf disease is not the ' disease,' but an 
effect arising upon and from a diseased condition already con- 
tracted by the coffee trees. Fungus, blight, mouldiness, appear 
only upon already diseased subjects ! Wherefore surely we are 
less concerned as to inquiring into how the evil operates in its 
development, propagation, and continuity, than in ascertaining t/ie 
cause of it. There exists a cause, producing an enfeebled constitu- 
tion of the coffee tree, upon which the Hemileia fixes with avidity. 
See how invigorating manures and treatment sets up the tree, and 
enables it to cast off the disease (as we say, but 7iot ' the disease ' 
— that we have not yet discovered — but cast off the attack) and 
hold on the better under it." 



96 COFFEE. 

Mr. Sclirotty, In a later communication, says : 

" I think it would be utterly futile to hope that any endeavors 
to eradicate leaf disease could succeed so far as to enable Ceylon 
coffee-planters to sweep the fungus out of the island, to be seen 
no more. We have evidence to show that the fungus was in ex- 
istence and feeding on coffee-leaves long before it was first brought 
to prominent public notice in 1869, and probably this same fun- 
gus, though perhaps not quite in the same form, could have been 
found in the island centuries before the first coffee-plant was in- 
troduced. But what reasonably can be expected is, that the rav- 
ages of this pest can be reduced by man to such an extent as to 
enable him to cultivate coffee with profit. 

"A careful investigation of the subject, taking into considera- 
tion what has been done in the case of other blights, has led me, 
and can, in my opinion, only lead to one conclusion, and that is : 
that, though an attack of coffee-leaf disease leaves behind its mark 
upon the tree, increasing in effect with every successive attack, 
and though a peculiar condition of the sap seems to be necessary 
to its establishing a firm hold over the tree, it is essentially an 
external and easily accessible enemy, and can be successfully bat- 
tled with. And to the question, why it has not been successfully 
battled with as yet, there can only be one answer, and that is : 
We have not tried enough." 

In June, 1880, a report was made to the Hon. the Colonial 
Secretary, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, by Mr. H. 
Marshal Ward, the government cryptogamist, from which we ex- 
tract the conclusions which were the result of this gentleman's 
investigations : 

" In conclusion, I feel justified in drawing these inferences 
from what has been seen so far. Derived from some source 
purely external, a fungoid organism finds its way into the pas- 
sages between the cells of the leaf ; here it has a term of exist- 
ence shown to the observer by the origin and spread of the yel- 
low ' disease spots,' caused by the changes in consistence and 
color of the leaf contents at those places. 

"The outbreak of the yellow 'rust' fi'om the leaf -passages, 
through the stomata, takes place when the leaf begins to fail in 
supplying sap. Such an explanation is in accordance with all the 



CULTIVATION IlSr CEYLO]^. 97 

facts yet known to me, and also witli the present state of pliysi- 
ologj. In seedlings, the cotyledons especially become yellow, 
and in older plants the lower leaves usually suffer first ; on wind- 
blown ridges, quartz patches, and dry soil generally, bad attacks 
of rust are conspicuous when more sheltered and moist portions 
of the estate do not appear to be suffering ; in sudden dry M^eather 
' an attack ' commonly comes over an estate, while during the last 
stages of crop 'leaf disease' is often very bad. 

"Now, if the mycelium, ramifying among the loose cells of 
the leaf, is absorbing its food fi'om those cells, as is well known 
to be the habit of such parasites, we can see how so much more 
work is thrown upon the plant. Whereas, a leaf normally sup- 
plies a certain quantity of elaborated food for the tree in a given 
time, we have here the same leaf compelled to provide food for 
tree and fungus — its cells must work the harder and its life be 
the shorter. 

"Until we fail to account for the ravages of leaf disease ac- 
cording to known principles we have no right to seek an explana- 
tion elsewhere. Many, and in some cases elaborate, experiments 
are being planned to establish the important point as to what 
actually occurs between the fall of the leaf, with its ' rust ' and 
mycelium, and the reappearance of the yellow ' pin-spots ' ; I have 
already indicated the direction in which these are leading, and it 
only remains to patiently carry on research. When it is remem- 
bered that these germinating spores have to be kept under ob- 
ser^^ation during the night as well as day, that all kinds of minute 
organisms have to be guarded against, and hence that out of many 
attempts few succeed, I hope that the importance of this plan 
will be admitted." 

While the Ceylon planter is fighting his enemy with sulphur 
and lime, or trying other remedies, the Ceylon Observer takes 
rather a hopeful view of the coffee industry, as the following, 
from its columns, will show : 

" If we refer to the past history of the staple exports of the 
colony, we shall find much reason to congratulate ourselves on a 
record of steady progress. Even in the case of coffee, although 
there has been a check, there is no reason to anticipate more than 
temporary depression. Our largest shipment of plantation coffee 
7 



98 COFFEE. 

appears to have been in the year 1869-70 — the date of the ap- 
pearance of coffee-leaf disease — but this export, 886,000 cwts., 
was nearly equalled in 1874-75 with 874,000 cwts. In 1878-79 
it was 775,000 cwts. The falling off in quantity has, however, 
been more than made up in value, the customs return show- 
ing 41,060,000 rupees worth exported last year against only 
23,910,000 rupees in 1870, though perhaps the valuation in the 
latter year was too low. The great decline has been in native 
coffee, from 218,000 cwts., valued at 4,371,000 rupees, in 1868, to 
49,284 cwts., worth 1,675,565 rupees, in 1879. If value as well as 
quantity is taken into account, there can be no doubt that 1877 
was the culminating year so far in the coffee trade of Ceylon, for 
the 974,330 cwts. (we now speak of the calendar year) shipped 
then was valued at close on fifty millions of rupees. If any one 
wishes to understand the cause of present depression in business 
throughout the island, they have only to remember that the defi- 
ciency in hard cash to coffee planters as indicated by the ship- 
ments of 1878 and 1879 cannot be less than twenty-six millions 
of rupees, which would make an average of ten thousand rupees 
per annum loss for every plantation in the country. Iso wonder 
that new products are required to turn the scale. Neverthe- 
less the progress of the coffee-planting indu.stry in Ceylon in 
forty-three years is little less than marvellous : the export in 1837 
being valued at a million of rupees ; that of 1879 at over forty 
millions. The quinquennial record is as follows, showing a pro- 
gressive increase up to 1871 when the Ilemileiti vastatrix began 
to tell ; after which year the average fell twenty per cent, to 
1876, and it has continued to fall at this rate for the last three 
years : 

For five years ending 1841 the average annual export was 54,872 cwts. 

« " 1846 " " " 140,220 " 

" «' 1851 " " " 315,049 " 

'« 1856 " " " 411,264 *' 

" " 1861 " " " 600,942 " 

" 1866 " " " 785,998 " 

" " 1871 " " " 973,975 " 

" " 1876 " " " 799,115 " 

For four years ending 1880 " " " 761,365 " 



CULTIVATION IN CEYLON". 99 

"Unless 1881 gives a really good coffee crop all over the coun- 
try, the average for the next quinquennial period ending with 
that year must show a further marked decrease." 

In Ceylon the principal crop is picked from April to July ; 
but there is also a small crop, chiefly from the young plants, 
gathered from September to December. The yield varies from 
2 cwts. to 12 cwts. per acre. Some estates show an average 
yield of from 9^ cwts. to 11|- cwts. per acre for a term of 
years. It requires fully 3 cwts. of coffee per acre annually to 
cover the cost of cultivation. 

Of the different processes necessary to prepare the bean for 
market, that of removing the outer rind, or of " pulping," as it is 
called, is the only one performed on the plantation. The " West- 
India process " is the method employed in Ceylon. A description 
of this method will be found in Chapter TV. 

The berries pass from the pulper into a cistern filled with 
water. There they are allowed to soak for about twelve hours, 
a slight fermentation setting in and decomposing the sticky fluid, 
or mucilage, which adheres to the parchment skin. The berries 
are then washed clean and spread on large drying-grounds, called 
barbecues, to dry. When this is accomplished, the planter has 
done his part, and the coffee is sent " in parchment " — that is to 
say, in the dry, tough skin enveloping the bean — to the shipping 
ports, where the subsequent operations of "peeling," "garbling," 
" sizing," and packing for export, a more detailed description of 
which is given further on, are completed. The reason for this is 
that each plantation could not well afford the expensive machinery 
used for these processes ; and also that labor is much cheaper 
on the coast than in the interior, the laborers being nearly all 
"Tamils" imported from the Coromandel Coast of India. The 
Sinhalese, as a rule, will have nothing to do with the work. 

Colombo, as is well known, is the chief port of export, and a 
railroad, eighty miles long, has been opened to the interior, almost 
solely for the purpose of transporting coffee and the fertilizers 
which its cultivation requires. On the arrival of the coffee in 
Colombo, it is taken to the coffee "mills," as they are there 
called, spread out on the drying-grounds in the sun, and thor- 
oughly dried ; it is then put into the " peeler " (for illustration, 



100 COFFEE. 

see p. 99), a large circular machine in which heavy rollers are 
constantly revolved on a bed of coffee, giving sufficient pressure 
to break and detach the "parchment," or thin outer covering, 
without crushing the bean. It is then run through "fanning- 
mills," which separate the bean from the parchment, dust, and 
trash ; and the beans are separated into different sizes by run- 
ning them through a series of screens, the first of which allows 
the pea-berry and the smaller and more imperfect kernels to 
drop through, the second separating the next larger size, while 
the third receives the larger and more perfect beans, known as 
"Xo. 1." The next smaller size is known as "Ko. 2," and 
the black, trashy, and imperfect berries as " triage." After the 
different kinds have been thus approximately separated by machin- 
ery, they are sent to the " picking-room," where a vast number 
of women and children are employed in carefully picking and 
sorting the different grades ; indeed it may be said that each 
individual coffee-bean passes through the fingers of these pickers. 
Of course this care in manipulation results in clean, perfect grades 
of coffee, and the grades " No. 1 " and " No. 2 Plantation Ceylon " 
are as well defined in the trade as the terms " granulated " and 
" A " sugars are among grocers in the United States. The pea- 
berry, or male berry, is here also made into a separate grade, as 
in Java, and usually commands a slightly higher price than the 
No. 1, although this depends much upon the demand, and at 
times it sells for the same price. 

The prospects of Ceylon, as a coffee-producing country, may 
perhaps be well summed up in the words of Mr. Simmonds in his 
book on " Tropical Agriculture : " 

" It would seem that, if the problem is solved of sufficiently 
maintaining, by manure and proper cultivation, the bulk of the 
present estates, so as to continue an average yield, there are re- 
sources in Ceylon which ought to carry the crop eventually to 
nearly double the present export of coffee. It will, however, be 
a long time before that result can be realized, if it ever conies, 
but in 1880, there ought to be crops averaging 1,500,000 cwts. of 
coffee, plantation and native, to deal with." 

The export in 1880, was C69,61-i cwts., showing that the ene- 



CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 



101 



mies of the plant, and more especially the ravages of leaf dis- 
ease have seriously affected the production, so that the average 
export for the past eight years was little over half of what Mr. 
Simmonds stated should result. 

The following gives the prices of native Ceylon coffee known 
as good ordinary in the London market : 



End of 1873 118s. per cwt. 

" 1874 82s. *' 

" 1875 92s. " 



End of 1876 89s. per cwt. 

" 1877 85s. 

" 1878 G78. " 



The following shows the range of prices as to quality : 



1879. 

Native Bold 75s. to 808. per cwt. 

Good & fine ordin'y . 70s. to 74s. " 
Small and ordinary . 623. to 69s. ' * 



1880. 

Native bold 64s. to 66s. p^rcwt. 

Good & fine ordin'y. 60s. to 61s. " 
Small and ordinary. 50s. to 59s5. 6d. " 



The comparative prices of Plantation Ceylon on January 1, 
1880 and 1881, in London, together with the prices of West 
India and Central American coffee, were, per hundredweight, 
in bond (duty, l^d. per pound and one-fourth per cent.), as 
follows : 





18S0. 


1881. 


Ceylon, Native, good and fine 


E. 

61 
50 

98 
87 
81 
60 
50 
93 
80 
50 
70 
52 
76 
53 


d. s. 

0@ 66 
0@ 60 
0@110 
0@ 95 
0@ 86 
0@ 80 
0@ 58 
0@105 
0@ 90 
0@ 74 
0@ 86 
0@ 65 
0@ 84 
0@ 73 


d. 

















E. 

71 

60 

112 

107 

103 

81 

70 

102 

92 

60 

85 

61 

90 

60 


d. B. 

0@ 80 
0@ 70 
0@120 
0@110 
0@106 
0@102 
0@ 80 
0@110 
0@100 
0@ 88 
0@100 
0@ 82 
0@ 97 
0@ 84 


d. 



Small to grood ordinary 





Plantation , fine 

Fine niiddlingr 






Good middling 





Low and middling , 





Triage and inferior 





Jamaica, finest 





Middling to good 





Inferior and triao-e 





Costa Rica, middling to fine 





Low to f. f . ordinary 





Guatemala, good to fine . . 

Ordinary to middling 











The imports of Ceylon coffee into the United Kingdom were 
as follows : 



102 



COFFEE. 



year. 


In Thousands, 
U. S. Lbs. 


Total Cwts. 


Year. 


In Thousands, 
V. S. Lbs. 


Total Cwts. 


1869 


95,200 
98,000 
96,656 
80,976 
95,200 
60,592 


850,000 
875,000 
863,000 
723,000 
850,000 
541.000 


1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


84,000 

56,560 

87,360 
57,008 
71,792 
55,664 


750,000 


1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 


505,000 
780,000 
509,000 
641,000 
497,000 



The distribution of the crop of 1879-80, was as follows : 
Distribution from October 1, 1879, to /September 30, 1880. 



Shipped to. 




Plantation, 


Native. 


Total. 




Cwts. 

530,907 

43 

3,545 

1,001 

63,678 

2,475 

100 

308 

61 

16 

457 

947 

619 

5 

6 

6,708 

10 

13 

7 

4,992 

347 

3,799 

1,923 

337 


Cwts. 

17,612 

4,025 

1,700 

3,079 

11,261 

475 
400 

100 

3,131 

296 
3,670 

75 

201 

513 
763 


Cwts. 

548,519 




43 




7,570 


Havre 


2,701 


Trieste 

Venice 


1 

1 


66,757 
13,736 


Ancona 

Leghorn 


\ 

i 


100 
308 


Genoa 

Port Said 


J 


536 

4C0 


Suez 


16 


Aden 


557 


Mauritius 


947 




3,750 


Calcutta 


T 


5 


Pondicherry i 

Madras ■ 


6 
296 


Bombay 


j> 


10,386 
3 


Tellicherry 

Singapore 


J 


75 

10 


Hongkong 


13 


Shanghai 


7 


Australia 


1 


5,193 
347 


Sydney 

Hebson's Bay 

Glenelg 


;► 


4,311 

2,686 
337 


Total 


622,306 


47,308 


669,614 







The great bulk of the crop, as will be seen from the foregoing, 
finds a market in England, where it commands a higher price 
than most other growths. The imports into the United States 
(Atlantic Coast), were as follows from 1866 to 1881 : 



CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. 



103 



Imj)ortation of Ceylon Coffee into the United States {Atlmitic 
Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Packages. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Packages. 


Tons. 


1866 


32,055 
9,110 
18,405 
22,347 
35,181 
18.404 
18,966 
7,823 


2,074 

590 

1,212 

1,483 
3,947 
1,306 
1,038 
542 


1874 


7,118 
10,141 
14,359 

3,232 
348 

9.184 

5,722 


703 


1807 ' 


1875 


732 


1868 


1876 


962 


1869 


1877 


197 


1870 


1878 


22 


1871 


1879 

1880 


615 


1872 


383 


1873 







Average for fifteen years, 1866-81 14,160 packages, 1,098 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-80 9,530 " 716 " 



The Plantation Ceylon usually comes in casks and tierces, con- 
taining 1,000 pounds in the former and 400 to 600 pounds in the 
latter. It is known as Pea-beny, JSTo. 1, 2, 3, and Triage. The 
bean is very heavy or solid, rather more so than the best Pio, 
and about the same in size and appearance as fine Blue Moun- 
tain Jamaica. The beans in the different grades are all of a 
size, and scrupulously clean. No. 1 is the largest. Native Ceylon 
is a light, spongy coffee, that loses two per cent, more in roast- 
ing than the Plantation. It is usually packed in bags, weigh- 
ing either 112, 140, or 168 pounds. The bean varies in color 
from a white to yellow, and in size is sometimes quite as large as 
Java, and again as small as Mocha. 

The same quantity in weight of roasted Plantation Ceylon 
will make a heavier bodied liquor than a similar amount of Java. 
In flavor it ranks with the finest of mild coffee. 

In the year 1882 we look for a considerable export of Liberian 
coffee from Ceylon. Quite an area is under cultivation ; the 
plants have thriven, and promise well. This matter has more 
than a passing interest to Americans, for it is due to the industry 
of the liberated slaves of America upon the plantations of Liberia 
in cultivating a species of coffee indigenous to the forests of 
Liberia, and known as Coffoea Liberica, that Ceylon, Brazil, and 
other coffee-srowino; countries are enabled to utilize land for coffee 
production that is not suitable for growing Coffoea Arabica. 



104 COFFEE. 

In the spring of 1873 the first Liberian coffee plants were set 
out in Ceylon by Mr. L. St. George Carey. The honor of plant- 
ing the first seed is claimed by a Mr. Massey, who as early as 
1866 made an unsuccessful attempt to raise plants from native 
seed. One of the parchment beans he had at that time measured 
one and one-eighth inch in length. 

In 1876 there were thirteen estates in Ceylon cultivating Libe- 
rian coffee, with two hundred and forty-one acres planted. It seems 
specially adapted to tlie low lands, but will not flourish at as high 
an elevation as Coffcea Arabica, which thrives from five thou- 
sand to six thousand feet above sea level ; while its competitor 
flourishes from sea level to five hundred feet higher in Liberia. 
It is hoped that a hybrid will be secured which will do well be- 
tween one thousand and three thousand feet above sea-level. 



CHAPTEH XIII. 

CULTIVATION IN INDIA, 

BRiTisn India is also making great strides in tlie production of 
coffee, the first plantations of which were, it is said, opened in 
Bengal by some French or Spanish refugees from the Philippines 
in 1820. Legend says that the first plant was brought by Baba 
Buden, a pilgrim, from Arabia, ten to twenty generations back. 
It was planted in Mysore, and from this parent stock probably 
came the coffee trees that were found in Wynaad, Coorg, and 
other parts of the peninsula by travellers, these trees bearing 
evidence of being thirty to forty years old. The culture is now 
principally carried on in the Madras Presidency, and in the native 
states of Mysore, Travancore, and Coorg. It has been largely 
taken up by the natives as well as by Europeans. The province 
of Coorg has about seventy thousand acres under cultivation, 
from which from seven thousand to ten thousand tons of coffee 
are produced annually. The mountain-grown coffee of Mysore 
commands a high price at home, owing to its fine quality. It is 
grown some four thousand feet above sea level. In Neilgherry 
the tree flourishes at an altitude of six thousand feet, and trees 
thirty years of age are found as productive as the young trees. 

From an official " Statement of the Material Progress of 
India " we learn that : " The extension of coffee cultivation com- 
menced experimentally in the "Wynaad in 1840, and in 1862 there 
were 9,932 acres under cultivation in the Wynaad alone. In 1865, 
"Wynaad coffee cultivation had increased to 200 estates, covering 
14,613 acres. The exports in 1860-61 amounted to 19,119,209 
pounds, and coffee cultivation became a very important and in- 
creasing source of wealth. In 1873 the total number of acres 
under coffee were 29,595, in 6,913 holdings, of which 195 belong 



106 



COFFEE. 



to Europeans and 6,Y18 to natives." At present there are some 
35,000 acres under cultivation, on which $5,000,000 has been ex- 
pended by British capitalists. The unemployed area in Wynaad fit 
for coffee growing is placed at 200,000 acres. The shipping ports 
of this promising district are Madras, Tellicherry, and Calicut. 

At the Vienna Exhibition the first prize for coffee was secured 
by coffee grown in the hill tracts of the Chittagong district, Ben- 
gal, where from 1,000 to 1,350 pounds of coffee are secured per 
acre. Active work on these plantations is carried on from Octo- 
ber to February. 

The similarity of the seasons and the general physical charac- 
ter of Southern India, give rise to the same routine of cultivation 
as in Ceylon. The abundant supply of labor offers, however, 
peculiar advantages in India. 

The exports, according to the " Government Statistical Be- 
porter," were as follows, and they exhibit the great progress made 
during the period from 1856 to 1872. The severe drought of 1876, 
together with leaf disease and the ravages of the borer, reduced 
subsequent crops. 



Exports from British India, 1856-57 to 1878-79. 


Year. 


Quantity. 
Lbs. 


Tons, 


Year. 


Quantity. 
Lbs. 


Tons. 


1856-57 


5,205.400 


2,324 


1868-69.... 


47,788,773 


21,334 


1857-58 


6,123.807 


2,734 


1869-70. . . . 


36,081,003 


16,108 


1858-59 


11,695,195 


5,221 


1870-71.... 


33,459,426 


14,937 


1859-60 


14,345.809 


6,404 


1871-72. . . . 


56,363,838 


25,162 


1860-61. ... 


19,119,041 


8,535 


1872-73.... 


41,462,705 


18,510 


1861-62 


21,505,676 


9.601 


1873-74.... 


40,715,638 


18.177 


1862-63 


21,045,733 


9,395 


1874-75.... 


36,653,008 


16,363 


1863-64 


26,752.961 


11,943 


1875-76.... 


42,691,712 


19,059 


1864-65 


32,387,889 


14,459 


1876-77. . . . 


36,165.920 


16,147 


1865-66 


34.700.197 


15,491 


1877-78. . . . 


33.399,352 


14,910 


1866-67 


17,636,375 


7,873 


1878-79. . . . 


38,467,408 


17,173 


1867-68 


33.189,134 


14,817 









The home consumption is quite large in Southern India, it 
being estimated at from 16,000,000 to 18,000,000 pounds. About 
one-half the quantity exported goes to the United Kingdom ; one- 
third to France ; the balance is distributed to Turkey, Arabia, and 
Mediterranean ports, scarcely any reaching the United States. 




LIBEKIAN COFFEE PLANT. 



CHAPTER XrV. 

LIBEEIAN AND OTIIEK AFRICAN GEOWTHS OF COFFEE. 

The product of the African Republic, althougli limited in 
amount, has, during the last few years, attracted considerable 
notice. The plant differs somewhat from the tree known as C. 
Arabica, and botanically is known as C. Liberica. It is cultivated 
very successfully in the hot and moist lowlands or on hills of no 
great altitude. The tree grows wild in various parts of Liberia, 
but by transplanting to points near the coast, and careful cultiva- 
tion, the bean has been improved. 

The C. Liberica is more prolific, its berries, of varying size, be- 
ing frequently much larger than those obtained from C. Arabica, 
which rarely exceed one-half inch in length, while Liberian coffee 
has been shown from an inch to one and one-eighth inch in length. 
The Liberian plant has been taken to Java, Ceylon, Brazil, and 
other points, and subjected to experiments with a view of testing 
its merits as compared with C. Arabica. The fruit, when ripe, 
lacks the bright red color characteristic of C. Arabica, and its 
covering is hard, fibrous, and rather rough, containing little pulpy 
matter ; it does not drop from the tree when ripe, as in the case 
of Coffoea Arabica. The flavor is good, and if the culture and 
preparation were systematized and pursued upon a larger scale, it 
would undoubtedly become a favorite variety. 

The plantations in Liberia are scattered, poorly cultivated plots 
of ground, lying along the banks of the river. It is stated that a 
single tree has produced from twenty to twenty-four pounds of 
beans. While peculiarly adapted to growing in low countries, the 
plant is being successfully cultivated in Ceylon at an elevation of 
8,000 feet, and upon one estate 1,500 feet above sea-level a crop 
was gathered of two tons per acre. As the future of C. Liberica 



108 COFFEE. 

is full of promise and the plant likely to gain a permanent foot- 
hold in countries where C. Arabica is cultivated, I make quite a 
full extract from notes prepared by Mr. Morris, of Ceylon, for a 
work on Liberian coffee, more especially as our dealers and con- 
sumers will be called upon to test its merits and fix for it a place 
with other kinds of coffee now in popular favor. 

"Taking the description given in a former paragraph as an 
enumeration of the characters of a typical tree of C. Liberica, it is 
necessary to remark that there are varieties within certain limits 
which require to be noticed. Among the t]-ees cultivated in the 
Botanical Gardens at Peradeniya there are some which have 
characters so distinct as to be easily recognized even by a casual 
observer. For instance, one variety is distinguished by having 
rather small concave leaves, by developing a more vigorous growth 
of primaries and secondaries, and by constantly producing globose 
berries with very large flower scars : these are among the lar- 
gest trees, and bear the best crops. Another variety appears to 
have flatter and narrower leaves, the berries are distinctly ellip- 
soidal, and the seeds are very characteristically pointed at both 
ends. Other trees are marked by less distinguishing characters, 
but in trees where the number of petals varies between six and 
nine, it is to be expected that variation would take place in other 
organs. The instances given above are the most distinct varieties 
which have come under notice. It may be added that plants 
raised from these varieties retain their characters, and are easily 
recoernized. If there are several well-marked varieties of C. 
Liberica, it would be well to propagate and distribute those only 
which exhibit a vigorous and healthy growth of wood and pro- 
duce the largest crops. The variation in the number of petals is 
not constant in the same tree, but the petals are never fewer than 
six, nor more than nine. The berries, when ripe, are of a dull red 
color, not so bright as those of C. Arabica. Hiern, in his descrip- 
tion, probably from dry specimens, speaks of the berries as black. 
At Peradeniya they have never become black ; indeed they are 
not always completely red. If C. Liberica is the original of Cape 
Coast coffee, we shall have to add another variety to those indi- 
cated above. Dr. Koberts, who has had many opportunities for 
observing the trees on the West Coast of Africa, considers C. 



LIBERIA^ COFFEE BEEKIES AND SEEDS. 109 

Liberica and Cape Coast coffee to be distinct. There are three 
trees received as Cape Coast coffee now in the Botanic Gardens, 
about eighteen months old. They are more rol)ust in habit even 
than C. Liberica ; their leaves are thick and leathery, and more 
than fifteen inches in length. I^o trace whatever of leaf disease 
has appeared upon them, though young plants of C. Liberica, under 
similar conditions, have suffered more or less from it. "When 
these plants have flowered and produced berries, it will be easier 
to notice any further points of difference which exist between 
them and typical plants of C. Liberica. With regard to liability 
to attack from leaf-disease, it appears that plants of Mocha coffee 
suffer more severely from it than any others — so severely, indeed, 
as to kill a large number of very fine young plants in a few weeks. 
The ordinary coffee comes next, followed by C. Liberica, and with 
Cape Coast coffee, so far as our present experience goes, at the 
head of the list. 

" It is well knoM'n that young plants of C. Liberica suffer se- 
verely in nurseries from attacks of the Hemileia, but if the soil 
is good and a little liquid manure is applied, they soon recover, 
and after eighteen months or two years they seem to be strong 
enough to withstand the disease and become healthy and produc- 
tive trees. 

LIBERIAN COFFEE BERRIES AND SEEDS. 

" As may be supposed, from the habit and size of the trees, 
the berries of Liberian coffee are larger and finer than those of the 
ordinary coffee. The average length of the berry of C. Arabica sel- 
dom exceeds half an inch, while the average length of the berry 
of C. Liberica is nearly one inch. The pulp or outer covering of 
the Liberian coffee berries is thick, rather fibrous, and more or 
less fleshy, but never succulent, as in the ordinary coffee. The 
shell just under the pulp, the indurated endocarp, is hard and 
brittle, seldom looks clean, and is generally of a dull brown color. 
The " silver skin," wdiicli comes next, is strong and tough, dipping 
into the deep furrow on the face of the seed and carefully invest- 
ing the substance of the coffee bean. In descriptive notes on 
Liberian coffee berries and seeds, it may not be out of place to 
describe their character and structure with some detail, and place 



110 COFFEE. 

before those interested in the subject facts which may prove of 
vahie in dealing with the propagation and distribution of this 
promising plant. The seeds of Liberian coffee enclosed within 
their investing coats are generally two in number ; when one seed, 
as is sometimes the case, becomes abortive, the other seed receiv- 
ing all the nourishment of the berry, becomes large and rounded, 
and is termed a " pea bean." When the pulp is removed, the 
seed covered by the hard brittle shell, the indurated endocarp, is 
technically termed a " pyrene ; " there are, therefore, two " py- 
renes " in each perfect berry. The " pyrene " is convex on the 
back, fiat, with a narrow, usually deep longitudinal furrow on the 
face. If the hard shell investing the pyrene, the " parchment," 
be removed, we expose what is generally called " rice coffee." 
Carefully examined, the structures which make up the rice coffee 
or seeds are resolved into a membranous testa or coat of the seed, 
the " silver skin," a horny folded mass termed the albumen, and 
embedded in the substance of the latter, near its base, a small 
body called the embryo, the miniature Liberian coffee tree, not 
more than one-third inch in length. Botanists classify the different 
parts of a fruit like the coffee berry as follows : (1) the outer skin 
of the berry is termed the ejpicarj^ ; (2) the pulpy mass between 
the skin and the parchment is the mesocarjp ; (3) the indurated 
shell called the " parchment " is botanically the endocarjp ; (4) the 
" silver skin," whicli comes next to the parchment, is the testa or 
integument of the seed ; (5) the mass of the coffee bean under the 
" silver skin " is the albumen / (6) and contained in the albumen, 
embedded near its base, is the minute emhryo. The first, second, 
and third structures in this series belong to \\\q fruit, whereas the 
others — viz., the testa, the albumen, and the embryo — are essen- 
tially parts of the seed. The uses of the various structures which 
surround the minute embryo are to protect it from injury, and, at 
the same time, to supply it with suitable nourishment till such 
time as it is able to take care of itself. Most people are familiar 
with the gray pearly " silver skin " which forms the outer cover- 
ing or testa of the coffee bean. It envelops every part of the 
albumen, follows its foldings, and dips into the deep furrow on the 
face. By its tough, leathery nature it acts as an effectual protec- 
tion to the delicate structures within. Before the bean is roasted 



PKOPAGATION BY SEEDS. Ill 

'the parcliment and silver skin are removed, and then we have 
loft the horny, folded albumen making up the hulk of the bean. 
It is this albumen, roasted and ground, which supplies the coffee 
of household use. In the economy of plant life, the albumen is 
intended for a very different purpose : it is a patrimony which the 
young embryo is supposed to utilize and adapt for the purposes of 
its growth and development. In fact, it is a supply of food spe- 
cially and wisely adapted to promote its first impulses of life and 
energy. When examined under the microscope, the albumen con- 
sists of a number of cells, with walls more or less thick, forming 
a storehouse of nourishment in the form of starchy compounds, 
volatile oil, and other vegetable products. If in a fresh, mature 
bean we cut rather obliquely toward its base, we shall come 
upon a small cylindrical body, completely invested by the tissue 
of the albumen. It is about one-third the length of the bean, and 
looks like a small peg with a round head. This is the embryo of 
the future plant, and apparently now consists of only two parts. 
The narrow pointed part directed toward the base of the bean is 
the radicle. This, in the process of germination, will develop into 
the tap-root, while the round head, called by botanists the _^7Z?/- 
Tnide, will be found, on examination, to consist of two very minute 
fleshy leaves — the cotyledonary or seed-leaves of the young plant. 
Between these minute leaves is a process called the jpunctutn 
inegetationis, or growing-point of the ascending axis, destined, in 
process of time, to give rise to all the various structures of stem, 
branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. 

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 

" For the raising of Liberian coffee from seeds the first requi- 
site is a supply of well-ripened seeds, as fresh as possible. From 
the description of the various structures contained in a coffee seed 
it will be seen how delicate and sensitive these structures are. If 
the albumen be injured by damp or fermentation, or if it be ex- 
posed to the hardening and desiccating influences of a dry atmos- 
phere, it will be rendered quite unfit as a food supply for the 
young seedling, and it is owing to these circumstances that im- 
ported seeds so often fail to produce healthy plants. In the case 
of well-ripened seeds, under favorable conditions, ninety-six to 



113 COFFEE. 

uinetj-eight per cent, will germinate, and at least ninety-four per 
cent, will develop into fine trees. As in other seeds, it is neces- 
sary, in order to produce germination, that they receive the proper 
amount of moisture, heat, and air. The moisture required should 
be supplied by moderate but uniform watering, night and morn- 
ing. Excess of water will have an injurious effect upon the young 
plants, and render them weak and sickly. The best soil for rais- 
ing seeds is a mixture of loam and leaf-mould, or earth produced 
by rotten leaves, sifted and mixed with an equal volume of sand ; 
the sand keeps the loam from adhering together when watered, 
and allows excess of water to drain off, while the loam retains as 
much water in the cavities of the soil as is required for the purposes 
of germination. Jungle soil, well sifted and mixed with an equal 
proportion of sand, generally forms an excellent soil for young 
plants. The seeds may be sown in deep boxes, or in beds formed 
in the open air. In any case, a good depth of soil is necessary, 
for even in a very young seedling the tap-roots are extremely 
long, and they require an abundant supply of good, rich soil to 
keep up their growth. 

" The plants should be grown in partial shade or covered by 
thatched hurdles or " cadjans ; " care should be taken not to 
cover them up too much ; when established, the protection should 
be very gradually removed, according as the plants indicate their 
ability to bear the effects of light and sunshine. For transplant- 
ing purposes bamboo pots, baskets, or cow-dung pots may be used. 
"Where easily obtained, bamboo pots are strougly recommended ; 
they afford every protection for the tap-roots, and at the same 
time supply them with a good depth of soil. The cow-dung pots 
require more care in making, and, on young estates, the material 
may not easily be obtained ; but, where it is possible to make 
them, they are superior to anything else for transplanting pur- 
poses. Once the young plant is established in the cow-dung pot 
it is safe, for, when buried in the soil, the material of the pot be- 
comes softened by moisture, and is easily penetrated by the roots, 
thus forming a protection for the roots when handled, and ulti- 
mately a valuable manure to the plant. 

" Seeds of Liberian coffee appear to take a longer time to ger- 
minate than the ordinary coffee. Seeds sown on January 2d ap- 



GEIfEEAL EEMAEKS. 113 

peared above ground and were two and a half inches higli on 
February 1st. They remained apparently in statu quo for about 
a month, but by the end of March the two bright seed-leaves 
were fully developed. Two months longer are required to thor- 
oughly establish them, so that, under ordinary circumstances, Libe- 
rian coffee-plants require about five or six months before they can 
be safely transplanted ; and, when transplanted, too much care 
cannot be taken in handling the tender young rootlets and pre- 
serving them from injury. 

" In germinating, it will be noticed that at first there is only a 
short, pale green stalk, surmounted by the rounded oval form of 
the parchment bean. The structures of the coffee-seed noticed 
in the last section have now become greatly altered. Under the 
stimulating effects of heat and moisture the embryo has pushed 
forth its radicle and, penetrating the soil, has begun its life's work 
of absorption : on the other hand, the ascending axis of the em- 
bryo has grown upward, and, drawing its first nourishment from 
the albumen enclosed in the parchment and testa, appears as a 
short stalk with a globose head. It should be here noticed that, 
in order to nourish the young plant, all the starcliy compounds 
contained in the albumen have become changed, during germina- 
tion, into sugar: — a process analogous to what takes place with 
regard to starchy compounds in the animal economy. During 
the apparently stationary period, noticed above, the cotyledonary 
or seed-leaves are growing larger and larger within the parch- 
ment case. When they have exhausted their food supply the 
parchment covering, as well as the silver skin, falls off, and then 
the two fresh, bright green seed-leaves, being well supplied with 
moisture by the roots, begin their work of elaborating the juices 
and supplying the plant with its proper supply of food. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

" The plants of Liberian coffee now in the Botanic Gardens con- 
sist of several groups planted at different periods since 1873. The 
largest trees, now nearly ten feet high, were sent from Kew, in 
Wardian cases, in March, 1874 ; they were transferred into bam- 
boo pots a few months afterward. Out of twenty-four plants 
received, four were so severely attacked by leaf disease that they 
8 



114 COFFEE. 

succumbed ; the others suffered more or less, but ultimately re- 
covered. Many of the latter, however, show that they were weak- 
ened by the disease, for they are short of primaries and lose their 
leaves more rapidly than the healthy ones. Mr. Ferdinandus, the 
foreman of the Gardens, who has given considerable attention to 
this coffee, is a strong advocate for partial shade for young trees 
at this elevation. He believes that in the low country near the 
sea, the air, though warmer, is full of moisture, and the progress 
made by the trees at Ilenaratgoda strengthens him in the opinion 
that the Liberian coffee requires a warm, moist, and stimulating 
climate. During the warm weather on the hills the air is evi- 
dently too dry for young plants, unless they are partly shaded ; 
mulching with dead leaves, jak shavings, or even sawdust, is 
found very beneficial in dry weather. If the plants have a deep, 
rich soil and can send down their long tap-roots into it, they may 
dispense with shade and be all the better for the larger supply 
of lio-ht and air. The trees mentioned above came into blossom 
when eighteen months old, but none of it set. In March, 1876, 
another and a larger blossom was produced, which set abundantly. 
The berries were ripe in the following December, and from the 
seeds a large number of plants was raised. This was the only 
blossom produced in 1S7G. In the following year (1877) they 
blossomed early in March, and a good crop of fruit was produced 
by the close of the year. At the end of April, in tlie same year, 
and at intervals varying from two to three months, the trees were 
in partial blossom, and they have ever since borne berries in dif- 
ferent stages of growth. The principal flowering time, however, 
is March, and the main crop of fruit is ripe by the middle or end 
of December. 

"In 1875 a parcel of thirty seeds, packed in damp moss, was 
received from Mr. Bull; these germinated and grew up into 
healthy plants. The attacks of leaf disease were but slight, and 
the plants, in partial shade, are now doing well and are nearly 
five feet high. A leaf of one of these plants measures eighteen 
inches in extreme length and eight inches at the widest part. In 
outline it differs slightly from other specimens. Instead of having 
the wedge-shaped base narrowing as it approaches the petiole 
(stalk) of the leaf, the base is rounded and almost resembles the 



GENERAL EEMAKKS. 115 

full oval outline of tlie extremity of the leaf. The variations in 
the outline of the leaves, in the number of petals, in the size and 
shape of the berry, and in the area of the flower-scar, are points 
which may well be noticed ; for if they are associated with a more 
robust habit, wath a greater immunity from leaf disease, and also 
with a larger, production of the crop, it is evident that such vari- 
eties are deserving of great attention, and, as special varieties, 
w^ould well repay careful and systematic culture. Mr. Ferdinan- 
dus, who has successfully raised several thousands of plants of 
this coffee, prefers trees with small concave leaves, globose berries, 
and large flower-scars ; the*e are certainly the finest trees at Per- 
adeniya, and they bear the best crops. Attention having been 
drawn to these variations in Liberian coffee it is quite possible 
that others may be noticed. As the cultivation extends we shall, 
no doubt, be able to gather more accurate information respecting 
them, and learn whether any special variety is adapted for special 
areas of cultivation, or for higher and lower elevations. 

"A group of plants received from Mr. Bull in 187C were soon 
afterward planted out in fresh jungle soil. Slightly shaded at first, 
they quickly established tliemselves, were topped at six feet, and 
now (March, 1878) they have shown their first blossom, Mdiich has 
abundantly set. One or two trees placed in rather thick shade 
have shown that under such conditions they become drawn up 
and attenuated, and their first primaries are three and a half feet 
from the ground. It is quite certain that anything beyond a very 
partial shade is not suitable for this coffee. As soon as the young 
trees have well establislied themselves in rich, deep soil they can 
bear, provided the air is moist, full exposure to the sun. 

" In the third year the trees may be expected to produce a good 
crop, with a succession of blossoms every two or three months, ac- 
cording as the weather is favorable. The trees begin to throw out 
their secondaries in the third year, but apparently not so rapidly 
and regularly as the common coffee. It will be noticed that in 
branching, the Liberian coffee has an erect tree-like habit, and its 
primaries do not possess that horizontal and drooping habit which 
is so characteristic of C. Arabica. When rather lar^e trees of 
Liberian coffee are attacked by leaf disease, the leaves show per- 
forations scattered here and there over their surface : the fungus 



116 COFFEE. 

seems to be confined to isolated areas, and the leaves being so 
large, instead of causing them to fall off, a round hole is made 
through them, as if eaten by a caterpillar. Thus the greater part 
of the leaf-area is left intact, and it is enabled, in spite of leaf 
disease, to discharge its functions as an essential part in the 
economy of the plant. It can hardly be expected that a plant of 
this kind can be entirely free from the attacks of the many para- 
sites which affect vegetable life in Ceylon. One tree of Liberian 
coffee has been attacked by borer, and the leaves of a small plant 
have been entirely destroyed by the caterpillar of the pearl moth ; 
but cases of this nature, so far, are t»o isolated and possibly too 
accidental to allow any general conclusions to be drawn from them. 
That the Liberian coffee in the adult state is strong enough to 
resist attacks of leaf disease, and that it is well suited for cultiva- 
tion in the extensive districts of the low country, are facts alone 
sufficient to render its cultivation in Ceylon one of the most prom- 
ising undertakings in the island." 

Small quantities of coffee are grown along the eastern coast of 
Africa, in Abyssinia, the Somali country, Mozambique, Madagas- 
car, Natal, Re Union, and Mauritius ; but the total yield, so far 
as its influence upon the supply of Europe and the United States 
is concerned, is insignificant, as the export capacity of all the 
places named does not exceed from six hundred to eight hundred 
tons annually. The product of the eastern provinces of Africa, 
taken in connection with the small crops raised on the west coast, 
makes Africa contribute between three thousand and four thou- 
sand tons to the world's production, the amount including coffee 
grown in Egypt and the interior countries of the continent. 



CHAPTER XV. 

EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 

Within a few provinces of Brazil is produced more than one- 
half of the coffee-supply of the world. 

The industry in that great empire will be better understood if 
some knowledge is possessed of the country, its government, in- 
habitants, and industrial development. 

The government is monarchical, hereditary, constitutional, and 
representative. The reigning monarch is the Emperor Dom 
Pedro IL, who succeeded to the throne of his father, Dom Pedro 
I., on the 7tli of April, 1S31, being little over six years old. He 
was declared of age, and assumed the reins of government on 
July 23, 1840, and was crowned July 18, 1841. He is an edu- 
cated man, of liberal ideas, an indefatigable M^orker, and has 
proved himself a wise and capable ruler. 

The empire of Brazil covers one-fifteenth of the surface of the 
globe, one-fifth of the I^ew World, and three-sevenths of South 
America. It extends from about 5° 10' north latitude to 33° 46' 
south latitude, and from 34° 47' 15" to 74° 7' 5" west longitude 
of Greenwich. Situated in the eastern part of South America, it 
has a coast line, washed by the waters of the Xorth and South 
Atlantic, of nearly five thousand miles. Its greatest length is 
two thousand six hundred miles, and its width, measuring from 
Ponta de Pedras, the most eastern point, to the most western 
point on the river Javari, is about two thousand eight hundred 
miles. It has an area of 3,288,110 square miles, divided into 
twenty provinces, besides the municipality of S. Sebastiao do Bio 
de Janeiro, as follows : Amazonas, Para, Maranhao, Piauhy, Ceara, 
Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, 
Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, S. Paulo, Parana, Santa 



118 COFFEE. 

Catharina, S, Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, 
and Matto Grosso. 

Extensive mountain ranges and rivers of enormous size tra- 
verse the empire, so that vast plains and extensive valleys abound. 
Its principal river, the Amazon, is the largest on the globe, being, 
with its tributaries, navigable for over thirty thousand miles. 
This river empties into the ocean with a velocity so great " that 
at a distance of nearly one mile from the coast its current is still 
equal to four miles an hour, and navigators may drink of its 
waters after losing sight of land." 

The climate of Brazil varies greatly in different parts of the 
empire, being hot and damp during the rainy season in the region 
from Ttio de Janeiro, the capital, north to the Amazon, the mean 
temperature being 26° Centigrade (79° Fahrenheit). From the 
capital to the extreme southern point the heat diminishes, and the 
climate becomes cool, especially in the provinces of S. Paulo, 
Parana, Santa Catharina, S. Pedro do Eio Grande do Sul, and part 
of Minas Geraes. The following particulars are given in a work 
published under the auspices of the Brazilian Government, entitled 
"The Empire of Brazil at the [Philadelphia] Exposition of 1876" : 

" As a rule, the rainy season commences in November, and 
lasts until June. These limits, however, vary according to locali- 
ties. From the river Amazon to the Parnahyba it rains a great 
deal ; thence to S. Francisco but little ; and more again to the 
south. The immense valley of this river embraces the region 
which the natives call the Sertao^ and has two very distinct sea- 
sons, the dry and the wet season, the former lasting from January 
to May, and the latter from June to December. In June all vege- 
tation ceases, all seeds ripen ; in July the leaves commence to 
turn yellow and to fall ; in August vast tracts of land present the 
aspect of a European winter without snow, with two or three 
exceptions the trees being denuded of leaves. Where the old 
mode of preparation is in vogue, this is the most favorable 
season for the preparation of the coffee cultivated on the moun- 
tains. Being gathered, it is spread on the ground, which exhales 
no moisture, but, on the contrary, absorbs it. Surrounded by an 
atmosphere in the same conditions, the coffee dries rapidly with- 
out fermenting. 



EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 119 

" From December to Jamiary the wet season sets in, and with 
the first rainfalls the rivers, which until then had been almost dry, 
with oidy here and there a few pools, which served as watering- 
places for cattle, or as a refuge for fish, swell immensely. Plants 
in a few days, as by a charm, reacquire their verdancy ; the soil is 
covered with parti-colored flowers ; alimentary plants grow quickly 
and produce abundantly." 

The vegetation of this colossal empire, so richly endowed by 
nature, is beyond the powers of description. " In the mountain 
passes not far removed from the sea shore, the conjoint effects of 
heat and moisture produce a superfluity of vegetable life, which 
man's utmost efforts cannot restrain. Trees split for paling in 
the neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro send forth shoots and branches 
immediately, and this whether the position of the fragments be 
that in which they originally grew, or inverted. On the banks of 
the Amazon the loftiest trees destroy each other by their prox- 
imity, and are bound together by rich and multiform vines. In 
the province of Maranhao, the roots, grasses, and other plants, ex- 
tending from the shores of pools, weave themselves, in time, into 
a kind of vegetable bridge, along which the passenger treads, un- 
aware that he has left the firm earth, until the jaws of a cayman 
protrude through the herbage before him." Botanists pronounce 
the flora of Brazil unsurpassed by that of any other region in 
the world. There are already twenty thousand species knowTi to 
scientists, many of which are invaluable as articles of food or 
medicine. 

Almost every sort of wood can be obtained in the forests ; 
among the most valuable trees being an imcultured palm grow- 
ing in several of the provinces, almost every portion of it coming 
into use, even the leaves giving wax used in the manufacture of 
candies, the province of Bio Grande do Norte exporting 300,000 
kilograms (660,000 pounds) over and above home consumption. 
It is, however, reserved for a foreign plant, Coffoea Arabica, to take 
the first place as a source of wealth — to be, in fact, the chief source 
of the prosperity of the empire. The prodirctfveness of the soil 
is in some instances wonderful. Grain returns commonly one 
hundred and fifty fold ; in some localities two hundred and fifty 
to three hundred, and on one of the coast islands four hun.- 



120 COFFEE. 

dred fold has been frequently harvested. Rice yields as much as 
a thousand fold, and the cotton fields are unusually productive. 
These facts are interesting to the reader as showing that nature 
has done more for the coffee-fields of Brazil than for almost any 
other section of the coffee-growing belt. 

The question of labor has for some time interested the planters 
of Brazil, and the problem they must solve is how to secure an 
abundance, for if crops increase without an addition to the popu- 
lation, there will be a scarcity. Already the wisdom of mtro- 
ducing Chinese laborers has been canvassed. 

It is now a diflicult matter to harvest properly a crop of over 
four million bags of coffee, in addition to giving proper care to 
other crops. A report recently published in Brazil states that 
" the only remedy is to curtail plantations to a point where pro- 
duction may about balance consumption, thus admitting easy har- 
vesting and better preparation for market." 

The population of Brazil is not definitely known, but it prob- 
ably does not exceed 12,000,000 souls, including native tribes of 
Indians numbering about 2,000,000, and in 1876, 1,476,567 slaves. 
In a few years slavery will be abolished. By virtue of a decree of 
the empire, made in 1871, all persons born thereafter in Brazil 
Avere free, and freedom was given to the slaves employed in the 
public service or in the imperial household. 

A correspondent of the London Times, in commenting upon 
the policy of gradual emancipation and certain evasions of the law, 
says : "The mere fact that the majority of colored freedmen have 
flocked to the cities and looked for domestic service may be taken 
as an earnest of what will become of sugar, cotton, and other plan- 
tations when the whole slave race has ceased to exist. It is sup- 
posed, indeed, that coffee may thrive in the hands of white laborers ; 
but at the estate of Rio Bonito, where slave-labor is carried on 
with equal regard to economy and humanity, there is a firm con- 
viction that the full enforcement of tlie law of 1871 must be a 
death-blow to their industry. And again, other planters, aware 
that the days of slavery are numbered, work their land to utter 
exliaustion, anxious to get as much profit out of it as they can 
with their slaves, and convinced that with final abolition their 
property will h^ve to be abandoned as valueless." "When a 



EMPIKE OF BRAZIL. 121 

scarcit}^ of labor presses upon the Brazilian planter, it is probable, 
however, that measures will be taken to enlist the services of 
that portion of the population now classed as aborigines, and 
numbering over two millions, besides drawing thousands from the 
low lands to the southern provinces, where a cooler climate makes 
hard work less wearing upon the system. Or if no such solution 
can be had, the power of machinery can be utilized, and history 
will record of its adaptation in Brazil a story similar to that it 
has written respecting the United States. 

This power of agricultural machinery to compensate for a de- 
ficiency in the labor supply was most ably shown by Mr. Samuel 
B. Euggles, of Xew York, in a speech made to the Cobden Club, 
at their annual dinner in London, on the 21st June, 1879. His 
subject was " The Agricultural Progress of the ]S"ation in Cheap- 
ening the Food of America and Europe." In the course of his 
remarks he said : 

" It may not be superfluous to add the prosaic fact, that our 
scanty population of 5,922,471 individuals, aged ten years and up- 
ward, engaged in agriculture in 1870, would have been wholly 
unable, with any human labqr within their reach, to plough, sow, 
and plant tlie land, and to reap, mow, and prepare for market the 
immense crop of cereals and grasses represented in a yearly pro- 
duct of §2,447,189,141. That vast work was and could be accom- 
plished only by the use of the efficient and various agricultural 
labor-saving machines and implements, mainly the fruits of 
American invention and enterprise, practically augmenting from 
five to tenfold, or, in mathematical phrase, raising to that higher 
power the unaided working capacity of the 5,992,471 individuals. 
In truth, it is this great and providential superaddition of force 
which now fully enables our country to discharge the sublime and 
beneficent duty to plentifully and permanently feed with vegetable 
and animal food large and constantly increasing portions of the 
populations of the outer world." 

Brazil has already begun to use new machinery and adopt 
improved processes of cultivation and preparation upon the 
plantations. In the production of sugar the most improved ma- 
chinery is being introduced, and we are informed, in a volume 
issued by the government, that " the culture and preparation of 



122 COFFEE. 

coffee, sugar, cotton, and tobacco, has been considerably improved 
bj the introduction of new machinery and improved processes." 
The necessity for a division of labor is also recognized, and 
planters in many instances cultivate coffee, leaving to othei's its 
preparation for market. Central mills are being established by 
companies and worked upon a plan similar to that in operation in 
districts in this country where factories are placed for the manu- 
facture of butter and cheese. 

The empire further recognizes its duty to its subjects by fos- 
tering agricultural institutions. We find one institution where 
the pupils are trained so as to make of them excellent over- 
seers or managers of large rural establishments, and the best 
assistants for the progress and improvement of agriculture. It is 
fortunate that the emperor takes a great interest in all these 
matters and devotes time and labor to bringing the schools to a 
high degree of excellence, and in encouraging all manner of in- 
dustrial enterprises. 

Confirming these conclusions we have further and decisive 
proof in the construction of electric telegraphs, lines of rail- 
ways, and increased facilities for ocean navigation. The former 
were introduced in 1852, and we now find that Brazil is in tele- 
graphic communication with the United States and Europe, and 
with the Argentine, Paraguayan, and Chilian Republics. The 
starting of a line of steamships to the port of I^ew York wrought 
great changes in the coffee trade between the two countries. It 
is, however, in the development of railway communication that 
we find the greatest amount of work done, calculated to improve 
the internal alfairs of the empire. In 1867, there were only six 
railroads in operation, of the aggregate length of 683 kilometres 
(424 miles), but every year since then has added to the number 
of miles built. Five years later fifteen lines were operated, with 
1,026 kilometres (637 miles); in 1876, twenty-two lines, with 
1,660 kilometres (1,031 miles); and in 1880, thirty-one lines, 
with 3,059 kilometres (1,900 miles) were worked, while lines were 
under construction, or survey, that would add 1,910 kilometres 
(1,187 miles) to those then in traffic. 

The government has spent large sums of money in aid of 
railways. The main line is known as the Dom Pedro II. Kailway, 



EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 123 

and is the trunk of tlie present system. It starts from Eio de 
Janeiro, the capital, crosses an important part of the province of 
Eio de Janeiro, has a branch traversing the province of S. Paulo, 
and another bringing to the coast the crops of the province of 
Minas Geraes, while its southern connections open a line to Santos. 
This road reaches several of the richest provinces of the empire, 
and its prosperity is chiefly due to its large traffic in coffee. The 
mania for building railroads has, however, resulted in an exten- 
sion of lines into provinces where the traffic is insufficient to 
make the operating of the roads profitable. Those interested in 
further studying this subject will find it ably treated in Mr. Her- 
bert Smith's work on " Brazil : The Amazons and the Coast," and 
also in the volume lately mentioned, published under the auspices 
of the Brazilian Government. It is sufficient for our purpose to 
know that within five or six years the railways have penetrated the 
large coffee-growing districts, and that the crop finds its way to 
market rapidly, and at far less cost than when planters sent their 
product to market on the backs of mules, which mode of con- 
veyance was made uncertain, and at times impossible, by the bad 
condition of the roads during the rainy season. It has been suffi- 
ciently demonstrated that the government and planters of Brazil 
are alive to the importance of using the great factors that have 
revolutionized the commerce of the world within twenty years, 
viz., steam and electricity, and this is the more creditable, for this 
has been done in instances where it is certain the railways cannot, 
for many years at least, earn operating expenses, as some of them 
traverse long stretches of arid land where it is not probable that 
large quantities of either freight or passengers can ever be fur- 
nished. These developments have done much to cheapen the 
price of coffee, and their effect has been felt more during the past 
year than at any previous time. 



CHAPTEE XYI. 

THE BKAZILIAN PRODUCT. 

"We now come to consider tlie position of Brazil, the veritable 
colussus among coffee-producers. 

A coffee-plant was brought over in 1722, from the French 
colony of Cayenne to Para, in the Amazon district, where the cul- 
tivation, however, was only undertaken after the promulgation of 
a decree in 1701, exempting the new agricultural product from 
export duties. From the Amazon the culture extended to Maran- 
hao, whence in 1774, two small trees were taken to the province 
of Rio and planted in a private garden, near the convent of Adjuda. 
The trees prospered, and subsequently an enterprising Belgian, 
named Molke, opened a regular coffee plantation amidst the great 
fields of sugar-cane and cereals which then constituted the chief 
wealth of the province. Such, we are told, were the beginnings 
of that immense culture which now supplies more than one half 
of the world's coffee. 

The coffee industry in Brazil did not at the outset display 
that marvellous rapidity of growth, which had signalized the cul- 
tivation in the West Indies. While the island of Ilayti, in little 
more than seventy-five years after the introduction of the plant, 
had exported nearly eighty millions of pounds of coffee per an- 
num, Brazil, at the end of a period of about equal length, in 
1820, did not export more than fourteen million pounds of the ar- 
ticle. Cuba was then shipping a yearly average of twenty -five 
million pounds. From that time forth, however, the coffee pro- 
duction of Brazil began to assume remarkable proportions. Stim- 
ulated by the high prices of the staple and the adaptability of the 
country to coffee-raising, the planters of the province of Rio 
had commenced the wholesale conversion of the former sugar 
and other estates into coffee plantations. In 1830, the exports 
from Rio de Janeiro had already increased to 391,785 bags, or 



THE BRAZILIAN" PRODUCT. 



125 



27,985 tons. In 1840, they readied 1,068,418 bags, or m tlio ten 
years from 1831 to 1840 an average of 48,532 tons annually. 
From 1841 to 1850 the product increased to 98,907 tons, and 
from 1851 to 1860 to 143,671 tons annually. The curtailment of 
coffee consumption, consequent upon the civil war, in the United 
States — the chief market for Brazil coffee — discouraged produc- 
tion, and the yearly average exports from Rio, from 1861 to 1870 
did not exceed 138,537 tons. From 1871 to 1875, however, the 
shipments advanced to an average of 155,912 tons per annum. 
The total exports from the empire have been as follows, the state- 
ment showing the quantity shipped from Rio de Janeiro and San- 
tos, the countries to which the coffee was exported, and the total 
average supply of Brazil coffee for the past seven years : 

Sh'qnnents from Rio de Janeiro. 
(Bags of 60 kilos, 132 lbs. ; 17 bags to the ton.) 





United States. 


Europe and 
Cape, etc. 


Total. 


Proportion to United 
States, Europe, etc. 




U. S. 
Per cent. 


Europe. 
Per cent. 


1880 


1,824,950 
2,245,091 
1,024,945 
1,633,700 
1,404.302 
2,001,427 
1,477,317 


1,632,921 
1,253,982 
1,218,135 
1,122,085 
1,299,429 
1,111,749 
1,145,290 


3,457,871 
3,499,073 
2,843,080 
2,755,785 
2,703,731 
3,113,176 
2,622,607 


521 
64 

57 
59 
43 
64 
57 


47i 


1879 


86 


1878 


43 


1877 


41 


1876 


48 


1875 


86 


1874 


43 






Total seven years. 
Average per year. 


12,211,732 
1,744,533 


8.783,591 
1,354,799 


20,995,333 
3,999,333 


58 
58 


43 
42 



Average per annum, 176,431 tons = 395,305,440 lbs. 

Shipments from Santos. 
(Bags, 60 kilos, 133 lbs. ; 17 bags to the ton.) 





United States. 


Europe, etc. 


Total. 


Proportion. 


Year. 


U. S. 
Per cent. 


Europe. 
Per cent. 


1880 


205,962 
210,305 
175,353 
87,431 
58,004 
136,514 
107,168 


863,030 
946,631 
925,701 
606,084 
603,789 
719,372 
639,183 


1,067,982 
1,156,936 
1,100,954 
693,515 
661,793 
845,886 
746,351 


19 
18 
16 
12i 
9 
15 
14 


81 


1879 


82 


1878 


84 


1877 


87i 


1876 


91 


1875 

1874 


85 
86 






Total seven years. 
Average per year . 


970,637 
138,663 


5,302,780 
757,540 


6,373,417 
896,303 


15i 
15^ 


84+ 
84| 



Average per annum, 53,718 tons = 118,088,320 lbs. 



126 COFFEE. 

Comhined Shi/pments of Coffee fi'om Rio and Santos. 
(Bags, 60 kilos, 132 lbs ; 17 bags to the ton.) 





United States. 


Europe, etc. 


Total. 


Proportion. 


Year.' 


U. S. 
Per cent. 


Europe. 
Per cent. 


1880 


2,030,912 
2,455,396 
1.800.198 
1,721.131 
1,462,306 
2,127.941 
1,584,485 


2,494.941 
2,220,613 
2,143,836 
1,728,169 
1,903,218 
1,831,121 
1,784,473 


4,525,833 
4.656,009 
3,944,034 
8,449.300 
3,865,524 
3,959,062 
3,368,958 


45 
53 
45 
50 
43 
54 
47 


55 


1879 


47 


1878 


55 


1877 


50 


1876 


57 


1875 


46 


1874 


53 






Total seven years. 
Average per year . 


13,182,369 

1,883,195 


14,086,371 
2,012,339 


27,268,740 
3,895,534 


48f 
48f 


51f 
51i 



Average per annum, 229,149 tons = 513,293,760 lbs. 

Average consumption per annum in Brazil, 20,000 tons = 44,800,000 lbs. 

Total yearly production, 558,093,760 lbs. 

Here we have the stupendous average of 558,093,760 pounds, 
or 249,149 tons of coffee, annually, for seven years, from the par- 
tially developed empire of Brazil. A large proportion of the 
government revenue is derived from a tax or duty imposed upon 
exports of coffee. The duty in Rio de Janeiro is thirteen per 
cent., and in Santos thirteen and a half per cent., based on the 
average quotation of coffee as fixed by the brokers every Saturday. 

From the preceding tables it will be seen that the United 
States absorbs the larger portion of the Kio export, while Europe 
takes eighty-four and one-half per cent, of the Santos. During 
the past seven years Europe has taken an average of nearly fifty- 
two per cent, of the Brazilian crop exported. 

"With production being pushed in Central America and Mexico, 
and large supplies from the East Indies, Ceylon, and India, it is 
becoming a question of more than passing interest what effect 
the tremendous crops of Brazil will have upon prices, as the total 
supply is at present rather in advance of the world's require- 
ments. 

The coffee-tree seems to find the requisite conditions of cli- 
mate and soil in almost every portion of the vast region known 
as Brazil, and nearly everywhere gives an abundant yield. 



THE BRAZILIAN PRODUCT. 127 

Coffee-culture extends from the Amazon to tlie province of 
San Paulo, and from the coast to the western limits of the empire 
— a surface exceeding 653,400 square kilometres. Within this 
territory it is estimated that there are about 530,000,000 coffee- 
trees, which cover an area of 1,400,000 acres. 

The coffee-plantations situated on the high lands, and exposed 
to the east, are the most productive, but the industry prospers 
even in the bottom lands, although the product is said to be in- 
ferior in flavor and aroma. In Brazil the trees are usually planted 
five feet apart, but in many cases at much wider intervals, large 
quantities of vegetables, and even grasses, being often raised be- 
tween the rows. The plant gives its first full crop in its fifth 
year, and continues to produce until about its twentieth year. In 
some instances plantations have lasted thirty years, and efforts are 
now being made to improve the culture so as to lengthen the life 
of the trees. This is chiefly sought by enriching the ground, 
and by a better system of raising the young plants, through 
which a more vigorous growth is obtained. During the period 
of bearing, the tree is calculated to produce, on an average, a total 
of thirty to forty pounds of clean coffee, although between six 
and twelve years of age the average is much higher. From the 
twelfth to the twentieth year the yield is irregular. Formerly 
small cuttings, taken from the old bushes, were used for the prop- 
agation of the coffee-tree ; it is now, as in Eastern countries, prin- 
cipally raised from the seed. On the high lands the gathering of 
the crop begins in April or May, and continues until November. 
The " West India process " of separating the pulp, and then wash- 
ing and drying, prevails on most of the large estates. Much 
progress seems to have been made, of late years, in the curing of 
the coffee-bean. Improved machinery has come into use, and 
much better grades are exported. It is interesting, in this con- 
nection, to note the following remarks fi-om the pen of Professor 
Agassiz, written during his stay in Brazil : 

" I have taken pains to ascertain the facts respecting the cul- 
ture of coffee during the last fifty years. The immense develop- 
ment of this branch of industry, and the rapidity of the move- 
ment, especially in a country where labor is so scarce, is among 
the most striking economical phenomena of our century. Thanks 



128 COFFEE. 

to tlieir perseverance, and the favorable conditions presented by 
the constitution of their soil, the Brazilians have obtained a sort 
of monopoly of coffee. More than half the coffee consumed in 
the world is of Brazilian growth. And yet the coffee of Brazil 
has little reputation, and is even greatly underrated. 

" Why is this ? 

" Simply because a great deal of the best produce of Brazilian 
plantations is sold under the name of Java or Mocha, or as the 
coffee of Martinique or Bourbon. Martinique only produces six 
hundred sacks of coffee annually ; Guadaloupe, whose coffee is sold 
under the name of the neighboring island, yields six thousand 
sacks — not enough to provide the market of Rio de Janeiro for 
twenty-four hours, and the island of Bourbon hardly more. A 
great part of the coffee which is bought under these names, or 
under that of Java coffee, is Brazilian, while the so-called Mocha 
coffee is often nothing but the small round beans of the Brazilian 
plant, found at the summits of the branches, and very carefully 
selected. If the fazendeiros^ like the Java planters, sold their 
crops under a special mark, the great purchasers would learn with 
what merchandise they have to deal, and the agriculture of Brazil 
would be greatly benefited. But there intervenes between the 
fazendeiro and the exporter a class of merchants — half bankers, 
half brokers — known as co'tnmissarios, who, by mixing different 
harvests, lower the standard crop, thus relieving the producer of 
all responsibility, and depriving the product of its true character- 
istics." 

The above remarks may be true with regard to that portion 
of Brazilian coffee exported from Santos, and which finds a mar- 
ket in Europe, but they are erroneous as regards the larger por- 
tion of the Brazilian product. That known as Santos is produced 
in the southern districts of the empire, and does not possess that 
rank and peculiar flavor that is characteristic of the coffee ex- 
ported from the port of Rio de Janeiro, and which is so marked 
that it cannot be disguised. Selections of the choicest Rio beans 
might, however, if stored properly for two or three years, lose this 
peculiar smell and flavor, and become so mellowed by age as to 
approach more closely in drinking qualities those produced in the 
more northerly portions of South America. 




SACKING AND VVLIGUING. 



THE BEAZILIAN PRODUCT. 129 

The principal ports of Brazil from which coffee is exported 
are Kio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia, Caravellas, and Ceara. The 
port of Rio exports over three-fourths of all the coffee that Brazil 
sends abroad. The coffee of the provinces of Minas Geraes, 
Espirito Santo, and the northern portion of San Paulo all has 
its market in Rio. Santos occupies the second rank in the mag- 
nitude of its exports. 

The coffee of Brazil varies greatly in color and size. Most 
of the Rio coffee received here is a small-sized bean, varying in 
color from a light to a dark green, with some of a yellow hue, 
often denominated Golden Rio. Large quantities are artificially 
colored, in order to meet the requirements of certain sections 
where a prejudice exists in favor of some peculiar color. Various 
chemicals are used in the process, some of which are rank 
poison, while others are comparatively harmless. By simply 
washing in clear cold water it may easily be determined if tlie 
bean has been artificially colored. The flavor of most of the 
Rio coffee imported into the United States is, as has been 
before stated, quite marked and entirely different from that 
of any other sort ; its smell and appearance, being also quite 
distinct and characteristic, preclude its substitution for other de- 
scriptions. 

In the Rio market the coffee is classed either as high land or 
bottom land, and is branded as follows : Superior, Primeria boa 
(good firsts), Primeria regular (ordinary firsts), Primeria ordinaria 
(low firsts), Segunda boa (good seconds), Segunda ordinaria (low 
seconds). Bahia coffee, owing to its mode of preparation, does 
not rank as first quality ; it is branded either S, SS, SSS. 

The planters generally forward their coffee to a commissariOy 
or factor, who acts as their agent. It is received in all sorts of 
lots and conditions from many different growers, no regularity 
being observed in the style of bag or the amount it contains. 
The factor sells his stock to the dealers or packers {ensaccadores), 
men that control large warehouses. The coffee is conveyed from 
the railway depot, in trucks or horse-cars, to a large room in the 
storehouse, level with the pavement. The sacks of coffee are 
piled on either side, each being numbered and further distin- 
9 



130 COFFEE. 

guislied by some special mark. Samples are drawTi from each 
ba^, similar qualities are put together, and the coffee is then re- 
sacked in coarse bags, of uniform size, each made to hold sixty- 
kilogrammes, or one hundred and thirty-two pounds. From the 
packers the exporter secures his supply, which is forwarded either 
by sailing vessel or steamer to the different ports of destination, 
the principal of which in the United States are l^ew York, Balti- 
more, and New Orleans. Formerly New Orleans received the 
bulk of the supply, but since the war New York has been the 
chief market. Cargoes by sailing vessel are generally owned by 
one firm, while steamer cargoes are the property of many. Since 
July 1, 1872, there has been no import duty upon coffee. The 
first duty levied by our Government on this article was two and 
one-half cents per pound, imposed in 1789, afterward increased 
in 1790 to four cents per pound, and in 1791 to five cents, remain- 
ing; at that fio;ure until 1812, when it was advanced to ten cents, 
and so remained until the close of the war. In 1814 the duty 
was placed at five cents, remaining imchanged until 1828, when 
it was reduced to two cents, and in 1830 to one cent, and in 1832 
made free, and so continued until the civil strife of 1861 was 
inaugurated, when four cents per pound was imposed, afterward 
increased to five cents, and so continuing until January 1, 1871, 
when it was reduced to three cents, and finally entirely abolished, 
July 1, 1872. 



HOW COFFEE IS IMPORTED. 

Supposing we have ordered our agent in Rio de Janeiro 
to forward to us one thousand bags of coffee of sixty kilos, 
each, the order is filled, the coffee placed aboard steamer 
or sailing vessel, and in due course of time landed in New 
York, Baltimore, or New Orleans, or perhaps sent to Hamp- 
ton Roads for orders. The following will show the cost of 
the above purchase placed in warehouse in Brooklyn, in which 
city all Brazil coffee entering the port of New York is now 
stored. 



now COFFEE IS IMPORTED. 131 

Pro Forma Invoice of 1,000 Bags of Cofee^ of 60 Kilos, each, 
Skipj>ed from Rio de Janeiro to the United States. 

1,000 bags coffee of 60 kilos, each = net kilos. 

00,000, @ 6$350 per 10 kilos ; *Ils. 38:100$000 

1,000 empty bags @ 700 reis 700$U0O 

Rs. 38:800^000 

Export duty on kilos. 60,000, @ 503 rs. per kilo. 

= Rs. 30,120$000 @ 13^. Reis 3:915.$600 

Harbor-master (Capatazias) fees, 00 rs. pr. bag. . 60$000 

Brokerage, 50 rs. pr. bag 50$000 

Shipping expenses (at 230 rs. =Rs. 220. OOOj, sam- 
ple, tins and box (Rs. 3.')$000), freight on same 
(Rs.2$000),consurscertificate(includediasara- 
ple, tins, etc. ), cablegram (Rs. 100$000), stamps, 
petties, etc. (included in sample, tins and box). 347$000 

4:372$600 

43:172$600 
Commission, 2% 863$450 

44:03G$050 
Bill brokerage and stamps, ■§ of l^'? 165^700 

Reis 44:201 $810 
Rio de Janeiro, September 19, 1879. --. 

Conversion of lilo de Janeiro into Atnerican Currency. 

Amount of pro forma invoice Reis 44:201f 810 

At 21id. exchange at Rio £3,959 15 

$ 1.84^-i per £ sterling $19,161 00 

Charges accruing in the United States : 

Freight per steamer to New York, 40c. per bag and ^% 

primage $420 00 

Marine insurance, Ifr less 30 ^o — I'u net, on $31,673 or in- 
voice and £ value @ $5.50 151 70 

Banker's commission for credit = f of 1% on $19,161 143 73 

Bill stamps in London (nil). 

Labor at vessel, 4c. per bag ; storage, one month, @, 4c. ; 
weighing, SJc. ; fire insurance, IJc. per bag ; delivery 
(lighterage), 4c. per bag = 16^c. per bag 165 00 

Petty charges, i.e., sampling, sewing, custom fees, etc., 
on bags, per bag, 3^c. ; approximate for skimming of 
quality, bags @, ; furnishing new bags 35 00 

Cables at New York 5 00 

920 42 

Cost of 1,000 bags in store $30,081 43 



1,000 reis == 1 mil-ries = 54i cents, U. S. 



133 COFFEE. 

Based on out-turn weight of 130.87 lbs. per bag (original weight 132 lbs.), cost 
per pound is equal to (free of brokerage) 15|=\hiC., cash, as removed according to 
condition of London credits, i.e., the whole invoice, payable fifteen days prior 
to maturity in London of the ninety days' sight drafts drawn from Rio on day of 
shipment. 

As previously stated, the rate of the Brazilian export duty 
varies every week in conformity v^ith the average of the brokers' 
quotations of coffee for the preceding week. 

For instance, on a basis of 421 reis per kilo., or 3|307 reis per 
bag, the rate of duty would be with 

Good firsts, quoted at Keis 5$000 11 per cent. 

Kegular firsts, " 4|T00 12 " 

Ordinary firsts, " 4^300 13 " 

Good second, " 3$800 14J " 

Ordinary, « 3$400 15| " 

The establishment of cable and steamer communication with 
Rio de Janeiro has done much to prevent the market from being 
controlled by large importers. The Rio telegrams are a feature of 
the market, and come to the public either through some import- 
ing house, a broker, or the Associated Press, quoting either per 
arroba or per 10 kilos. They state the average daily receipts in 
Rio de Janeiro, give the quantity of coffee purchased for Europe 
and the United States, the price of good average cargoes, stock at 
date, shipments to different places, and the cost of exchange on 
London. 

The true method of getting at the cost in United States cur- 
rency is to multiply the price by the exchange. The result will 
be in English pence, which should be converted into American 
gold in the ordinary way at the existing rate of London exchange. 
The brokers, however, get a result accurate enough for all practi- 
cal purposes by multiplying the price by the exchange, deducting 
one-fourth of the amount so obtained, getting the free on board 
cost in Rio de Janeiro, to which must be added freight and 
charges. Samples of the coffee are placed in a broker's office as 
soon after arrival as the seller elects, and it is by the broker sold 
to the jobbers, the seller paying a brokerage of one-fourth or 
three-eighths of one per cent. 



HOW COFFEE IS IMPOETED. 133 

If a jobber sells an invoice to a dealer who requires the coffee 
shipped, he merely gives to a firm of forwarders an order upon 
the warehouse, and the coffee is then covered with an additional 
sack, costing from 13| to 17^ cents, and delivered by the for- 
warders to the freight line. The seller pays weighing charges, 
four cents ; storage, four cents, and labor, four cents per bag. The 
large railways keep lighters at the warehouse docks, accepting a 
delivery of the coffee through their agents there stationed. When 
shipped by steamers running to Southern ports cartage is charged. 

When sold by importers in large lots, an allowance of four 
cents per bag lighterage is made. On lots sold to interior points 
this is not granted, unless the purchase covers four hundred bags 
or over. Invoices are designated by letters. An invoice consists 
of a number of chops, designated by figures, each chop varying 
from the others in quality, style, or color. The coffee is divided 
into six grades, known as choice to fancy, prime, good, fair, ordi- 
nary, and common. These are subdivided and classed as follows : 

Fancy. Strictly fair. Good ordinary. 

Choice. Fully fair. Ordinary. 

Strictly prime. Fair. Low ordinary. 

Prime. Barely fair. Common. 

Strictly good. Low fair. Peaberry. 
Good. 

There is no standard of grade, nor is it deemed possible to 
establish one, owing to the changes wrought by time in the ap- 
pearance of the beans. The grade varies with the size and qual- 
ity of the crop and the condition of the market. Upon a quick 
and rising market coffee that ordinarily would be called fair 
suddenly becomes strictly fair or good, and on a depressed or de- 
clining market it may be termed barely or low fair. 

The following definitions of what constitutes the different 
grades are generally accepted on the market, but nothing binds 
them as a standard : 

Choice to Fancy. — Coffee that is entirely free from any imper- 
fections, uniform in color and size of bean, and extremely sightly 
in appearance. 

Prime^ that which is free from imperfections, quite regular 



134 COFFEE 

in color and size, but deficient in the rich, glossy appearance that 
marks choice to fanc3\ 

Good^ is that ranging from almost, to strictly clean, good in 
bean and color — in fine, what may be termed a nice, plain coffee. 
This is the average grade. 

Fair^ is that which is moderately clean, having now and then 
a few black or broken beans, or those mottled in color, or show- 
ing various slight imperfections. 

Ordinary, is indefinite in color, and quite unsightly in appear- 
ance, being largely mixed with black beans and other imperfec- 
tions. 

Coimnon, is a poor, unsightly coffee, filled with imperfections, 
such as black and broken beans, and of no definite color. This is 
the lowest grade of Kio excepting triage, a coffee which is exactly 
described by the word trash. 

The first four grades may each be divided into three separate 
colors, viz., light, medium, and dark. The prime and fair grades 
are sometimes polished, and the good frequently. By prefixing 
the word " strictly " to each one of the first five grades (such as 
strictly choice, strictly prime, etc.) the selection of such gi-ade may 
be secured. 

Different sections of the country require coffee of some pecu- 
liar color, and to get this jobbers will, when it is scarce, pay an 
extra price for it. For instance, the Chicago market takes a 
medium to light green Rio and scarcely any dark green, and of 
what are known as skimmings takes only light-colored. 

Cincinnati is partial to a yellow bean, but also takes a few 
greens, but of a darker hue than Chicago wants. 

Louisville takes much the same style as Cincinnati, except that 
on green coffee it prefers a deeper color. 

Texas requires the darkest kinds to be procured, and princi- 
pally of low grades. 

Dark green Rios arc the favorite with St. Louis buyers. 

Philadelphia buys heavily of low grades, absorbing whatever 
light or dark skimmings are offered. 

The following tables show the export movement from Rio de 
Janeiro and Santos, and also the imports into the United States 
and the port of New York. 



now COFFEE IS IMPOIITED. 



135 



The exports of coffee from Kio de Janeiro have been as follows 
from 1800 to 1880. Prior to 18Y4 the sacks contained five arro- 
bas, or 160 pounds; since that time tliey contain sixty kilos., or 132 
pomids. The figures are for the crop year extending from July 
1st to June 30th : 



Tear. 


Sacks, 


Tons. 


Year. 


Sacks. 


Tons. 


1800-1 


10 




1849-50.... 


1,451,715 


103.694 


1813-14 


12 




1850-51 


1,392,361 


99,455 


1817-18 


63,986 


4,570 


1851-53.... 


1,993,255 


143,375 


1818-19 


74,247 


5,303 


1852-53.... 


1,899,861 


135,704 


1819-20 


73,314 


5,237 


1853-54.... 


1,640,179 


117,155 


1830-21 


97,500 


6,965 


1854-55.... 


1.986,224 


141,873 


1821-22 


105,386 


7,528 


1855-56.... 


2,409,365 


172,090 


1822-23 


153,048 


10,861 


1856-57. . . . 


2,100,313 


150,023 


1823-24 


185,000 


13,214 


1857-.58. . . . 


2,097,449 


149,818 


1824-25 


224,000 


16,000 


1858-59.... 


1,833,416 


130,958 


1825-28 


183,136 


13,081 


1859-60 


2.031,412 


145,101 


183(3-27 


260,000 


18,571 


1860-61.... 


2,122,625 


151,016 


1837-38 


350,900 


25,064 


1861-63.... 


2,034.494 


145,321 


1828-29 


369,147 


26,368 


1862-63.... 


1,486,207 


106,158 


1839-30 


375,107 


26,793 


1863-64.... 


1,312,902 


93,779 


1830-31 


391,785 


27,985 


1864-65.... 


1,495,697 


106,835 


1831-33 


448,249 


32,018 


1865-66 


1.793,504 


128,036 


1832-33 


478.950 


34,311 


1866-67.... 


1,867,312 


133,379 


1833-34 


561,693 


40,131 


1867-68.... 


2,584,493 


184,607 


1834-35 


560,759 


40,054 


1868-69.... 


2,200,156 


157,154 


1835-36 


647,438 


45,245 


1869-70.... 


2,513,588 


179,542 


1836-37 


715,893 


51,135 


1870-71 


2,107,630 


150,545 


1837-38 


657,005 


45,939 


1871-73.... 


2,353,708 


168,123 


1838-39 


766,696 


54,764 


1873-73.... 


2,402,414 


171,001 


1839-40 


889,324 


63,523 


1873-74. . . . 


1,686,174 


120,441 


1840-41 


1,068,418 


76,316 








1841-43 


4,028,368 


73,455 




Bag;.s, 1.33 lbs. 




1842-43 


1,174,689 


83,906 


1874-75 .... 


3,087,676 


181,628 


1843-44 


1,183,646 


84,546 


1875-76.... 


2.805,476 


165,028 


1844-45 


l,2(i9.381 


90,670 


1876-77. . . . 


3,708,236 


159,308 


1845-46 


1,187,591 


84,828 


1877-78.... 


2,549,915 


149,995 


1846-47 


1,522,434 


108,745 


1878-79.... 


3,577,437 


210,461 


1847-48 


1,650,30 J 


117,879 


1879-80.... 


2,937.209 


172,777 


1848-49 


1,706,544 


121,896 


1880-81..., 


4,225,245 


248,544 



The shipments of coifee from Santos have been as follows, 
from July 1st to June 30th, for the past seven years : 



Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Ba.?s. 


Tons. 


1874-75 


829,753 
754,993 
628,903 
998,442 


48,809 
44,590 
37, 143 
58,970 


1878-79 


1,210,946 
1,046,061 
1,198,625 


71,583 


1875-76 

1876-77 


1879-80 

1880-81 


61,533 

70,507 


1877-78 











136 



COFFEE. 



Importations of Brazil Coffee into the United States {Atlantic 
Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 
1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 



808,040 
1,209,785 
1,172.541 
1,239,029 
1,401,387 
1,591,788 
1,186,170 
1,325,917 



57,586 
86,404 
83,747 
88,499 
100,105 
113,091 
84,726 
94,467 



Year. 



1874*. 

1875.. 
1876. . 
1877.. 
1878.. 
1879.. 
1880. . 



1,454,841 
2,139,463 
1,490.662 
1,903,849 
1,836,155 
2,561,628 
1,957.934 



88,873 
126,075 

87,843 
112,190 
108,202 
150,953 
115,379 



Average for fifteen years, 1866-1881 1,551,946 bags, 99,916 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-1880 1,744,841 " 108,240 " 



Direct Jieceij>ts in New Yorh of Brazil Coffee for the Year end- 
ing December Z\st. 



Year. 


Total Bags. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Total Bags. 


Pounds. 


1857 


860,717 


56,099,404 


1869 


720,486 


115,275,160 


1858 


342,950 


54,428,300 


1870 


623,089 


99,678,240 


1859 


374,167 


59,833,900 


1871 


639,163 


103,242,240 


1860 


292,595 


40,544,920 


1872 


520,782 


83,304,960 


1861 


558,060 


89,126.880 


1873 


629,014 


100,629,360 


1862 


347,691 


55,595,480 


1874 


779,225 


109.317,093 


1803 


280,913 


44,923,156 


1875 


1,060,483 


139.980.984 


1864 


532.364 


84,803,670 


1876 


738,965 


96,153,564 


1865 


584,540 


93,510.912 


1877 


1,066,066 


140.552,028 


1806 


526.586 


84,096.816 


1878 


1,120,224 


147,860,428 


1867 


768,478 


122,936,408 


1879 


1,714,654 


226,322,386 


1868 


770,528 


123,269,650 


1880 


1,277,823 


166,985,910 



* Prior to 1874, large bags, 160 lbs. ; 1874, large and small bags ; after 1874, small bags. 



CHAPTER XYII. 

COFFEE CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES. 

The Diitcli were the first to introduce the coffee-plant into 
the West Indies, as they had been the pioneers of its cultivation 
in the East. In 1710 a tree had been sent from Batavia to the 
Botanic Gardens of Amsterdam, where it prospered and produced 
fruit. Some of the young plants propagated from this parent 
stock were, in 1718, taken by the Dutch to their colony of Suri- 
nam, where the culture was carefully extended, as well as in 
Berbice and Demerara. But jealous monopoly has ever marked 
Dutch colonial policy, and the worthy tropical Hollanders were 
probably in no hurry to present their neighbors right and left 
with the valuable evergreens. The coffee-plant, however, found 
its way in a most provoking manner to the French island of Mar- 
tinique. It is said that the Botanic Garden of Paris surrepti- 
tiously procured a cutting from the Amsterdam garden, and 
therefrom raised a vigorous tree. From this a slip was entrusted, 
for introduction into the West Indies, to a French officer named 
Declieux, who is reported, during an unusually long and stormy 
voyage, to have shared his daily ration of water with the young 
plant. The slip reached Martinique safely, in 1720, and became 
the parent of an immense progeny ; for its descendants not only 
peopled the fields of Martinique and Guadaloupe, but in a few 
years spread to Jamaica, Porto Rico, Hayti, Cuba, the smaller 
Antilles and Central America, the Guianas, and the Brazils, 
where alone the prolific family numbers at the present day proba- 
bly six hundred million members. 

The progress of the coffee industry in the West Indies placed 
those islands for a time at the head of coffee-producing countries, 
but from that position they are now strangely fallen. The rapid 



138 COFFEE. 

decline of their coffee-industry is, indeed, a curious phenomenon, 
which many causes, chief among which may be named the aboli- 
tion of slavery and the excess, some years ago, of production over 
consumption, with the consequent unremunerative prices, have 
conspired to accelerate. The French colonies of Martinique and 
Guadaloupe, the former of which alone exported 5,000 tons, or 
over 11,200,000 pounds of coffee in 1759, now export together 
only from 600,000 pounds to 1,000,000 pounds of the article, the 
whole going to France. 

Cuba, which from 1830 to 1840 exported an average of over 
25,000,000 pounds of coffee, and, as late as 1842, 15,710 tons, 
does not at the present day produce a sufficient amount for local 
consumption, but depends for its supply partly on importations. 

In 1878-79 the area in Jamaica devoted to coffee-growing was 
22,853 acres. The following interesting facts respecting Jamaica 
coffee are taken from a letter written by Mr. D. Morris to the 
Ceylon Observer^ from the Botanical Department, Jamaica, in 
June, 1880. This gentleman says: 

" The crop of last season was sold, in some instances, at 1305. 
per cwt. I had the pleasure, the other day, of visiting Radnor 
plantation. I found it a good type of Jamaica estates, most of 
which have been in cultivation for more than a century and a 
half. In some places the trees were poor and ' sticky,' but wher- 
ever the soil has been preserved, and especially in ' bosoms,' the 
trees were looking healthy and strong. In spite of ' no manure,' 
in spite of ' mammoty ' weeding for generations, these trees were 
bearing good crops, and, moreover, the producei is able to obtain 
prices which Ceylon planters must envy. 

" I have been trying to find out why the Blue Mountain coffee 
of Jamaica is always so good, and how it is that it obtains such 
high prices as compared with the fine and highly cultivated coffee 
of Ceylon. Is the coffee grown here a peculiar variety of C. 
Arabica ? or is there something in the soil and climate which pro- 
motes the larger formation of the essential oils and secretions in 
the fragrant bean % Whatever it is, it cannot be in the superior 
cultivation, the more rational treatment of the crop, or the greater 
care in the curing. The only cultivation which the estates here 
receive consists in a rough ' hoe-weeding,' once or twice a year. 



COFFEE CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES. 139 

wltli no pruning, except what the hoe does, no system of drainage, 
no terracing, and, as I mentioned before, no manm-ing ! It is true 
that on one or two estates a liigher style of cultivation is being 
inaugurated, but, as a rule, coffee cultivation in Jamaica cannot 
compare at all with what is being done in Ceylon. It may seem 
strange to a Ceylon planter, but all the work of pulping, cm-ing, 
and preparing the coffee is done here on the estates by the super- 
intendent or overseer, and when the coffee is sent down to King- 
ston it is ready for shipment and immediately put in barrels. 
This system, and the absence of large coffee-curing establishments, 
must necessarily increase the cost of curing, etc., but it appears to 
have been pursued here from time immemorial, and planters ap- 
pear to like it. 

" Owing to the large areas nominally included under one 
estate, the different 'coffee-fields' are sometimes two or three 
miles away from the works, lying in ' bosoms ' of the hills, and 
only visited for the occasional ' hoeing ' and picking of the crop. 
Out of a nominal acreage of 1,000 acres often there are only 
160 to 200 aci-es, and sometimes only about 60 or 80 acres, under 
cultivation. The other parts are in 'reccinate' (jungle), or so 
steep that owing to ' breakaways ' and rocks it is impossible to 
cultivate them. This gives a Jamaica coffee estate a very patchy 
appearance, and as cinchona has not yet been taken up generally 
by planters, the uncultivated areas greatly exceed those cultivated. 
Much more might be done with the suitable coffee lands if a regu- 
lar system of nurseries were established and plants put out with 
greater care. At present new lands are planted up with ' suckers ' 
(or rather seedlings) found under the trees. These are pulled up 
with little or no care, even when they have six or eight primaries, 
and after being carried in bundles on heads exposed to the full 
rays of the sun are put in holes, and allowed to take their chance 
without shade or shelter. It is strange to hear such plants called 
' suckers,' but that is the orthodox term for them here, and it is 
on such plants that Jamaica planters entirely depend for their 
supplies and for planting up. I was much puzzled the other 
day with a remark made me by a planter respecting these said 
'suckers.' I asked why these self-sown plants were called 
' suckers,' when evidently they were nothing of the kind. I sug- 



140 COFFEE. 

gested ' seedlings ' as an appropriate term. I was told : ' 'No, no, 
they are not seedlings ; a sucker does not become a seedling till 
it is crowned.' This was still worse, and I had to give it up. 

" With regard to the absence of nurseries and the planting up 
of land by weakly sown ' seedlings ' it seems a pity that so much 
valuable land and so much time should be lost, when the remedy 
is so simple. The plants thus put in are often two feet high, and 
with several primaries {i. e., crowned, as I found afterward). 
Their rootlets are torn and lacerated, and the check they thus re- 
ceive in transplanting, and in being suddenly taken out from 
shade and exposed to the fierce rays of a tropical sun, results 
either in a large percentage being killed or in the plants being 
two or three years before they produce a maiden crop. 

"But still, as the planters say, many of the plants do grow, 
and when they do they produce some of the best coffee in the 
world. 

" In color, the best Jamaica coffee is darker and bluer than 
Ceylon coffee, and the beans smaller. Whether the color shows 
a larger proportion of oil I know not, but the sample appears to 
be greatly judged and valued according to color. The sample 
sent reminds one, in the size of the beans, of Mocha coffee, only 
the beans of the latter are generally of a dark yellow color. 
ISTearly all West Indian and Brazilian coffees are bluish or greenish 
gray. 

" The color of the bean must depend in some measure on the 
manner of pulping and drying, but, so far as I have noticed, the 
processes in Jamaica are much the same as in Ceylon, except that, 
possibly, here the cherry is allowed to stand longer before it is 
pulped. 

" But to return to the question of high prices — Why does 
Jamaica coffee command such high prices ? This subject, and 
especially in connection with Mocha coffee, must have occupied 
the attention of coffee-planters ever since coffee-planting began, 
but, so far, it appears not to have received a satisfactory solution. 
Is it temperature, atmospheric pressure, natural fertility, humidity 
of soil or air, amount of sunlight and excessive stimulation which 
produces the perfect elaboration of those subtle principles upon 
which the aroma and active qualities of coffee depend ? 



COFFEE CULTUEE IN THE WEST INDIES. 



141 



" "With regard to Mocha and Jamaica coffee, there must evi- 
dently be a combination of very favorable conditions for the pro- 
duction of beans possessing such salutary and agreeable qualities ; 
but from the subtlety and delicacy of the laws of vegetable assimi- 
lation, I fear it is almost impossible so to analyze and trace these 
conditions as to produce their parallel m other coffee-producing 
countries. 

"As far as I have noticed, there is little disease on any of the 
cultivated plants of Jamaica. With the exception of the Cenii- 
ostoma coifeeilum, a little leaf miner similar to the Gracilar'ia 
coffeefoUella (Nietnee) or Ceylon, which cause the silvery tortuous 
markings and blotches on coffee-leaves, Jamaica coffee appears to 
be very free from disease. Our old friend the black bug is here, 
but it does not give annoyance except, sometimes, to badly cul- 
tivated and young coffee." 

In the British colony of Jamaica the average annual ship- 
ments in the three years ending 1807, were about 11,000 tons. 
Seventy-five years ago the exports were placed at 9,821 tons, 
rising to 15,200 tons in 1814, but, subsequently, the production 
diminished, and exports fell off very largely. During the past 
ten or fifteen years exertions have been made to revive the coffee 
industry, to which the island is said to be peculiarly adapted, its 
product being noted for its superior quality. 

The Blue Mountains, wdiich extend lengthwise of the island, 
are admirably adapted for the cultivation of the coffee plant. The 
first trees were planted in 1728. In 1844 there were nearly seven 
hundred plantations on the island. The exports for seventeen 
years beginning with 1864 are given as follows : 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Pounds. 


1864 


4,141,903 
6,229,713 
8,513,533 
6,264,861 
7,855,488 
5,501,887 
9,671,564 
5,611,345 
9,510,739 


1873 


7,199,144 


1865 


1874 


10,351,570 


1866 


187o 

1876 

1877 


7,136,000 


1867 


8,708,000 


1868 


9,532,544 


1869 


1878 


9,411,584 
10,832,080 


1870 


1879 


1871 


1880 


10,088,804 


1872 











142 



COFFEE. 



The fine selections of Jamaica coffee command an extreme 
price on the London market, where this variety is highly prized 
for its very fine cup qualities. In style and flavor it rivals Plan- 
tation Ceylon. The bean has a bluish gray appearance, and is 
very uniform and handsome. The receipts in the United States 
of the best descriptions are very small, most of that imported 
being classed as ordinary. Jamaica coffee usually comes in 
bags of two hundred and fifty pounds and upward, subject to 
actual tare. Occasionally smaller packages are received, weighing 
about one hundred and fifty pounds. The ordinary bean is large, 
and varies in color from a dark green to almost white. Fre- 
quently samples show black beans and stones. The drinking 
qualities of ordinary Jamaica are not equal to those of a choice 
Cucuta Maracaibo, but are above those of what is known as Tru- 
jillo Maracaibo. The receipts in the United States have averaged 
seven hundred and eighty-three tons annually for the last ten 
years. The imports, from 1866 to 1881, into the United States 
were as follows : 

Importation of Jamaica Coffee into the United States {Atlantic 
Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Packages. 


Tons. 


Tear. 


Packages. 


Tons. 


1866 


9,680 
6,276 

8,428 
3,356 

5,708 
7,724 
8,100 
3,441 


808 

467 
284 
267 
552 
679 
721 
399 


1874 


13,796 
13,741 
3,972 
12,317 
5.320 
9.960 
8,133 


1,133 


1867 


1875 


1,021 


1868 


1876 


355 


1889 


1877 


1,192 


1870 


1878 


459 


1871 


1879 


1,024 


1872 


1880 


843 


1873 





Average for fifteen years, 1866-81 7,996 packages, 680 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-80 8,650 " 788 " 



HAYTI AND SAN DOMINGO. 



The cultivation of coffee began in Hayti about 1735-40. The 
industry flourished under the protection of the French Government, 
declining after the island passed out of tlie hands of France. 

In 1789 a crop of 80,000,000 pounds was produced on the 
island of Hayti. This island lies from three to five degrees below 



HAYTI AND SAN DOMINGO. 



143 



the northern limit of the coffee-growing belt. The country is 
mountainous, its elevated ranges being capable of cultivation 
nearly to their summits. The climate is especially well adapted 
to the growth of the coffee tree, the cultivation of which is being 
extended in the eastern part of the island, called St. Domingo, in 
contradistinction to the French or western part, which comprises 
the republic of Ilayti. The many and rapid political changes, 
which have been more or less of a revolutionary character, have 
tended to retard the development of coffee-plantations. The cul- 
tivation of the tree is principally carried on by the natives, who 
are so careless in the preparation of the bean that much of the 
product comes to market very stony and dirty, thus reducing its 
value far below the standard which its drinking qualities would 
otherwise ensure. Improved machinery is employed to a very 
limited extent. Efforts are being put forth to induce an exten- 
sion of coffee-culture, and to secure greater care in preparing the 
coffee for market, with a design to regain the ground lost during 
years of civil commotion. The bulk of the crop goes to Europe, 
and a considerable part of that received here is re-exported thither, 
where it is carefullj^ picked over, selected, and graded. It reaches 
market in all sorts of bags, the buyer receiving actual tare. The 
bean is larger than the Kio bean, approaching very closely in style 
to ordinary Jamaica. In color it varies, some of it being classed 
with what is termed white coifee. The receipts of St. Domingo 
coffee at the port of Kew York have been for ten years as follows : 

LwpoHation of St. Domingo Coffee into the United States {At- 
lantic Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


1806 


38,900 
49,388 
68,810 
83,790 
70,093 
59,978 
62,834 
46,320 


3,258 
2,866 
3,995 
4,701 
4,102 
8,480 
3,741 
2,679 


1874 


42,220 

75,583 
112,165 

97,922 
12.-), 348 
146,075 
171,230 


2,450 


1867 


1875 


4,383 


1868 


1876 


6,509 


1809 


1877 


5,684 


1870 


1878 


7,275 


1871 


1879 


8,478 


1872 


1880 


9.939 


1873 







Average for fifteen years, 1800-1881 83,418 bags, 4,836 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-80 93,909 " 5,463 " 



144 



COFFEE. 



The total export from Port au Prince (Hayti) from the crop 
of 1877-78, was 179,904 bags, and from the crop of 1878-79, 
143,939 bags. The average production of the island is about 
26,000 tons, the crop not showing very great variation. 



PORTO EICO. 



Porto Eico f m-nishes a coffee that is in great favor in Spain 
and Italy, and also on the island of Cuba. The cultivation is 
carried on largely in the provinces of Mayaguez, Ponce, Guaya- 
nilla, Aguadilla, Arecibo, and St. Johns. 

The exports have been as follows for the years mentioned : 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Pounds. 


1877 


15,358,742 
13.478,647 
27,003,094 


1874 


21,189.382 


1876 


1873 


27,168,951 


1875 











Cuba absorbed more than half of the crop of 1877, taking 
8,543,010 lbs. ; Spain and Italy, 2,643,946 lbs. ; Germany and 
Denmark, 1,027,648 lbs. ; the balance going to England, France, 
the United States, and sundry other points. 

The bean is somewhat similar in style to the Central American 
j^roduct, varying in color, but mostly greenish. The selections 
average larger in size than the Rio bean. In flavor this ranks as 
a mild coffee. A good deal of it has a peculiar taste, approxi- 
mating to what is usually termed " hidey." The ordinary is not 
a good flavored coffee, but the finer qualities rank well. 

Of the lesser islands Dominica and Trinidad yield about 3,000 
tons each, the rest of the group in the West Indies not producing 
enough to give them a position as coffee-growing countries. The 
total production of all the West India Islands does not exceed 
40,000 to 42,000 tons. 

The receipts from Cuba and Porto Eico in aU United States 
ports have been as follows : 



PORTO RICO. 



145 



IiTvportation of Cuba and Porto Rico Coffee into the United 
States {Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Bags. 


Tons, 


Year. 


Bags. 


Tons, 


1866 


3,794 

860 

85 

343 

70 

1,099 

14,533 

10,137 


330 

54 

3 

28 

10 

69 

908 

639 


1874 


9,560 

7,387 

1,154 

448 

134 

13,650 

4,365 


630 


1867 


1875 


464 


1868 


1876 


73 


18(59 


1877 


26 


1870 


1878 


9 


1871 


1879 


853 


1873. . 


1880 


333 


1873 







Average for fifteen years, 1866-1881 4,504 bags, 294 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-1880 6,247 " 398 " 



10 



CHAPTER XYIII. 

MABACATBO AND LAGUAYKA COFFEE. 

Fkom seven to twelve per cent, of the supply of coffee received 
in the United States comes from the northern part of South 
America, and is known as Maracaibo, LaguajTa, or Porto Cabell o 
coffee. It is grown either in Venezuela or the United States of 
Colombia. Both countries are mountainous, and are divided into 
provinces or states. The valleys are long and beautiful, and on 
the mountain sides and the lowlands coffee, which is the principal 
article of export, is raised. Owing to defective cultivation and 
neglect, the trees do not yield well, in some instances only one- 
quarter of a pound per tree. Political anarchy and the scarcity 
of capital and labor have stood in the way of the full develop- 
ment of Venezuela's industry, as they also have, to a greater or 
less extent, in New Grenada, now called the United States of 
Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador, in all of which the coffee-plant will 
grow and prosper. Still, the northern states of South America, 
with their Central American neighbors, form a great zone of coffee 
production, the fourth in importance. In 1876 the export was 
35,721,130 kUograms (78,750,803 pounds); in 1875, 31,082,417 
kilograms (68,524,296 pounds), or an average for the two years 
of 33,401,773 kilograms (73,637,548 pounds) or 32,874 tons. 
Adding the product of New Grenada, there are about 35,000 
tons available annually for export. The home consumption is 
about thirty per cent, of the crop. Officials in Venezuela esti- 
mate the total production at 50,000,000 kilograms (110,000,000 
pounds). 

Maracaibo coffee is known as Cucuta, Merida, Tovar, Bocono, 
and Trujillo. The first-named ranks as the finest. It is grown 
in the Province of Santander, in the United States of Colombia, 



MARACAIBO AND LAGUAYRA COFFEE. 147 

and shipped from the town of San Jose to the port of shipment. 
The best Cucuta approaches Java in size and shape of bean. When 
first gathered, the Maracaibo crop is of a greenish color, assuming 
toward the close of the crop season a yellow cast, which adds to 
its value. The crop is variable, the quality being, as a rule, poor 
when the yield is large, and good when small. 

The finer sorts are regarded by many as being equal to the 
best Java, and when roasted are often sold as Java, being pos- 
sessed of a fine aroma. Before being roasted they are also used 
to mix with Java and sold as such ; and on the principle that 
" Fleas have smaller fleas to bite 'em " there is probably more 
coffee shipped to this market, termed Cucuta, than is grown in the 
district of that name. 

l^ext in order of merit comes Merida, then Tovar, Bocono, and 
Trujillo; the first named is sometimes equal to or superior to 
Cucuta ; the last mentioned is the commonest, sometimes contain- 
ing stones and dirt. 

The coffee is grown on the western side of a range of moun- 
tains running northeast and southwest across the northwest corner 
of Yenezuela. The plant was first introduced into the region in 
1784 by a Catholic priest. The tree thrives best in the temperate 
region, but to some extent is cultivated in the tierra caliente (hot 
region), where, however, the product is of inferior quality. On 
the high lands the plant can be grown without shade, but in such 
instances the tree is short lived. Generally the young shoots are 
planted in parallel lines under the shade of large trees, the Cucare. 
The first crop is gathered when the tree is four or five years old, 
the harvest beginning in October. The berries are picked by 
hand and carried to a building where they are prepared for mar- 
ket by one of the two processes described in a previous chapter. 
Coffee that is prepared by means of a pulping machine is called 
cafe descerezado, and that which is subjected to the terrace or 
drying plan is termed cafe trillado. The latter is inferior, as the 
drying of the berries causes a deterioi*ating change in color, smell 
and taste of the bean. Good Yenezuela coffee should have a light 
bluish-green color and a peculiar aromatic smell, and the beans 
should be of equal size and shape. In Yenezuela 1,000 to 1,500 
trees are planted upon ^fanegada (one and three-quarter acres) of 



148 COFFEE. 

ground, A we]l-developed tree yields from one-lialf to one pound 
of coffee. 

Laguayra coffee is grown on highlands in the province of 
Valencia, some six or eight miles from the capital city of Caracas, 
in Venezuela. A coast range of mountains extends through the 
northwestern part of the province of Caracas. The bulk of the 
crop is sent to Europe. The best coffee is shipped to the United 
States under the name of washed Caracas, Caracas Laguayra, and 
Trillados. The balance of the Laguayra crop forms the larger 
part of what is termed Puerto Cabello, the latter being the name 
of a shipping port further west on the Caribbean Sea. This cof- 
fee is known as Puerto Cabello Trillados, and graded upon the 
Kio basis, as the bean approximates E.io coffee in size and color. 
The last named is inferior to Maracaibo in quality. In the 
province of Coro a low grade of coffee is raised and shipped from 
Puerto Cabello as Laguayra or Maracaibo. 

Maracaibo coffee is put up in thin sisal hemp bags, containing 
130 pounds ; the Laguayra in. heavy burlap bags, usually holding 
110 pounds, net ; there is, however, no uniformity, as the coffee 
is received in all sorts of shapes. The bags are marked with the 
initial letter of the consignor or consignee, under which is a letter 
designating the province in which the coffee was gi*own. Too 
much reliance must not be placed upon these marks, as inferior 
coffee is often branded wdth the initial letter of a district growing 
a fine grade. The average imports of Laguayra coffee into the 
United States for ten years have been about 90,000 bags, or 5,139 
tons. 

Savanilla coffee is grown in the United States of Colombia, in 
and about the town of Ocana, on the western slope of the range 
from which the Cucuta crop is received. It ranks in the New 
York market below Maracaibo. Another variety of fine mountain 
coffee, quite equal to fine Cucuta, is grown in the same republic, 
and designated Bogota. It is shipped from the town of Honda. 

Angostura is a large, spongy coffee, not much in favor here. 
It is raised in Venezuela and shipped from Cuidad, Bolivar, a 
town four hundred miles from the mouth of the Orinoco River. 
The tables below show the imports into Atlantic United States 
ports, of Maracaibo, Laguayra, and Kew Grenada coffee. 



MARACAIBO AND LAGUAYRA COFFEE. 



149 



Im^portation of MaroLcaiho Coffee into the United States {Atlantio 
Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year, 


Bags. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


1866 


53,611 
55,387 
93,271 
53,706 

117,218 

102,303 

170,305 

98,043 


2,890 
3,041 
5,132 
2,949 
6,437 
5,616 
9,351 
5,383 


1874 


71,001 

66,255 

153,451 

184,856 
204,684 
199,694 
234,689 


3,898 


1867 


1875 


3,575 


1868 


1876 


8,'.'21 


1869 


1877 


9,905 


1870 


1878 


10,965 


1871 


1879 


10,698 


1873 


1880 


13,573 


1873 







Average for fifteen years, 1866-1881 123,832 bags, 6,708 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-1880 148,528 " 8,019 " 



Imjports of Laguayra and Puerto Cabello Coffee into the United 
States {Atlantic Coast), from 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


1863 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 


62.550 

44,019 
62,884 
42,657 
36,931 
69,205 
126,503 
105,896 


3,072 
2,162 
3,087 
2,095 
1,619 
3,398 
6,310 
5,230 


1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


143.241 
144,177 

41,500 
132.083 
103,680 

61,383 
124,741 


6,834 
7,451 
2,038 
5,995 
5,091 
3,014 
6,125 



Average for fifteen years, 1866-1881 86,763 bags, 4,328 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-1880 105,241 " 5,139 " 



CHAPTER XIX. 

COFFEE PRODUCT OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 

Coffee is the chief article of export from the Central Amer- 
ican States. The climate and soil are well adapted to its cultiva- 
tion. The finest coffee is raised on the highlands, and is pos- 
sessed of a delicate aromatic flavor, while its drinking qualities 
equal, if they do not surpass, the better-known Java and Mocha. 
The States of Costa Rica and Guatemala lead in the cultivation 
of this variety, and then, in the order named, San Salvador, 
Nicaragua, and Honduras. In 1845 the Republic of Costa Rica 
passed a decree encouraging the development of coffee plantations. 
The sides of the magnificent hills about the towns of San Jose 
and Cartago were soon covered with coffee-trees, the planters 
rapidly growing rich from the product. Thirty-five years ago 
coffee culture in Costa Rica amounted to very little, while in 1876 
the crop was 18,000,000 pounds ; in 1877, 25,987,101 pounds ; 
and in 1878, 18,065,206 pounds. 

In the Xew York market the term Costa Rica was formerly 
applied to all imports of coffee from Central America, but re- 
cently the Central American product has further taken the dis- 
tinctive names of the various states from whence it comes. 

Definite statistical information respecting the crops of the dif- 
ferent states in Central America is hard to obtain. An estimate 
made in February, 1881, by importers in this city largely inter- 
ested in the Central American coffee trade, places the average 
crop of Guatemala at 300,000 to 350,000 quintals (30,000,000 
to 35,000,000 pounds) ; Costa Rica, 300,000 to 350,000 quintals 
(30,000,000 to 35,000,000 pounds); Salvador, 150,000 quintals 
(15,000,000 pounds); Nicaragua, 25,000 quintals (25,000,000 
pounds); Honduras, 10,000 quintals (10,000,000 pounds) — a 



COFFEE PRODUCT OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 151 

total production for Central America of from 110,000,000 to 
120,000,000 pomids, or say about 50,000 tons per annum. Costa 
Eica has produced a crop of 400,000 quintals (40,000,000 pounds), 
and Guatemala rising 300,000 quintals (30,000,000 pounds).* 
From Guatemala there were exported, in 18Y5, 7,302 tons ; in 
1876, 9,260 tons ; in 1879, 11,251 tons. The crop of 1880-81 
is estimated at 225,000 to 250,000 quintals, or 10,000 to 11,000 
tons. The export from Salvador was, in 1877, 10,992,997 pounds, 

or 4,908 tons. 

I regard the preceding estimate as representing a maximum 
crop, yet one of our leading importing firms, for many years in 
the Central American trade, places the average total annual crop 
of the five Central American states for the past five years at 
70,000,000 pounds, or say 35,000 tons. The industry has made 
rapid advances for the past ten years, and the best informed per- 
sons in regard to it look for a continued increase. 

A great diversity in modes of cultivation and preparation pre- 
vails. In some instances the planters use the most primitive 
methods, and upon other estates the most improved machinery is 
employed and the greatest care exercised in the cleaning and 
selection of the beans into different sizes. Costa Rica coffee dif- 
fers in shape from Rio or Java, approximating more closely to 

* According to Prof. Van Den Berg, President of the Java Banlc, the produc- 
tion of coffee in Central America amounted in 1805 to9, 050,000 kilos. (19,951,630 
pounds), and the average from 1876 to 1878 was 32,500,000 kilos. (71,649,500 
pounds) per annum. 

Dr. Neumann-Spallart gives the exports of San Salvador in 1877 at 54,710 
centner (6,030,883 lbs.), and the total of Central America at 288,045 centner 
(31,751,200 lbs.). (Uebersichten ilber Production, etc.) 

The French official " Annales du Commerce Exterieur," for March, 1880, No. 
2,196, gives the value of the exports of coffee from San Salvador in 1876 at 
$1,209,363 (93.5 cents United States money); 1877, at $1,680,444; and 1878, 
at $1,180,069. It also gives the exports from Guatemala in 1878 at 20,935,900 
pounds, valued at 16,748,702 francs. 

The Consul-Gen eral of Guatemala at New York states that 25,201,685 pounds 
of coffee, valued at $4,032,270, were exported from Guatemala during the year 
1879. 

M. Darley de Thiersant, Consul -General and Charge d' Affaires of France at 
Guatemala, reports the exports of coffee from the Republic of Nicaragua dur- 
ing the year 1878 to the value of $1,265,825 (of Central America). (Bulletin 
Consulaire Fran^ais, p. 65, lere Fascicule, 1880.) 



152 COFFEE. 

the best grades of Maracaibo. In color it varies from a dark to a 
light grayish green. When roasted it has a heavier body than 
Java or Maracaibo, possessing a fine, rich flavor, considered by 
experts as equal to the finest kinds grown. It is worth noticing 
that in opposite quarters of the globe, Costa Eica and South In- 
dia occupy the same north latitude, and that their respective 
growths approach, one another in quality. The Costa Rica pea- 
berry is a very fine coffee, that is often sold for Mocha. It is 
grown upon Mocha shoots, but it loses the hard flinty appearance 
of the true Mocha bean, and varies from it in size and color. The 
difference in climate and soil also changes its flavor from that of 
the true Arabian product. 

The cultivation of the coffee tree in Guatemala is increasing, 
so much so that it is expected the export will reach 20,000 tons 
within the next five years. In 1875, the export was 7,302 tons, 
and in 1876, 9,260 tons. The yield on the Pacific slope reaches 
three pounds per tree, and in specially favored spots as high as five 
pounds, while on the Atlantic side, in the Vera Paz, or Coban dis- 
trict, only one pound is obtained. The Guatemala bean varies 
from a dark to a bluish green. Some of it runs unusually uniform 
in size, as it is carefully picked over several times. The finer 
grades are regarded as equal in flavor, and by some judges, supe- 
rior to any other coffee grown. The Salvador bean is of a yellow 
cast, and is possessed of a very sweet smell. The product of Hon- 
duras is mottled in appearance, and the beans broken. Nicaragua 
produces but little, the wdiole of which goes to market as Costa 
Ilica or Guatemala coffee. 

Recently some 70,000 trees have been planted in the Chiriqui 
district, in the State of Panama, and this marks the beginning of 
the enterprise in that state. 

A San Francisco trade report for the year 1880, says : 

" We are slowly but surely obtaining the whole of the trade 
in Central American coffee grown on the Pacific coast. During 
the past year imports exceeded by over six and a half million 
pounds those of 1879, and by more than four million pounds those 
of the greatest importing year ever before noted. The shipments 
from Costa Rica during 1880 were unusually large, being aug- 
mented by that portion of the previous crop, which, owing to 



COFFEE PEODUCT OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 



153 



excessive and early rains in 1879, could not arrive at port of 
delivery during that season. Thus, the imports from that repub- 
lic were 40,095 bags in the year just passed, against 24,414 bags 
in 1879, and 32,166 bags in 1878. 

" The imports of Guatemala in 1880, have been 61,020 bags, 
against 40,028 bags in 1879, and 48,957 bags in 1878. 

" The imports of Salvador coffee last year were, 32,455 bags, 
against 20,400 bags in 1879, and 21,371 bags in 1878." 

',' The imports of Central American coffee into Pacific coast 
ports in 1880 reached 18,853,826 pounds, or 8,461 tons, which, 
added to Atlantic Coast imports, make a total of 16,171 tons. 

Importation of New Grenada and Costa Rica Coffee into the 
United States {Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1881. 



Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


1866 


7,889 
9,755. 
16,011 
9,637 
12,296 
22,864 
30,272 
36,634 


390 

488 

801 

483 

614 

1,112 

1,506 

1,834 


1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


42,703 
41,153 
31,529 
46,994 
37,974 
78,929 
125,581 


2,131 


1867 


2,058 


1868 


1,563 


1869 


2,370 


1870 


2,111 
4,856 


1871 


1872 


7,710 


1873 





Average for fifteen years, 1866-1880 36,648 bags, 2,001 tons. 

Average for ten years, 1871-1880 49,413 " 2,734 " 



CHAPTER XX. 

THE COFFEE INDUSTRY IN MEXICO AND OTHER COUNTRIES. 

The coffee-tree finds a congenial home in Mexico and in Cen- 
tral America. 

" It may be an unknown fact to many Americans," writes 
the Hon. John W. Foster, United States Minister to Mexico, 
" that at our very doors, in Mexico, our neighboring republic, 
there exists the agricultural capacity to produce all tlie coffee that 
can be consumed in the United States, and of a quality equal to 
the best grown in any country. Mexico, it is true, is exporting 
very little coffee and scarcely figures in the coffee-producing coun- 
tries, but its capacity and adaptability for its production have 
been tested by more than fifty years of successful cultivation." 

A correspondent of the li'eio York Herald wrote to that jour- 
nal in February, 1879, that " the peculiarly adaptable soil and 
climate, altitude, and condition of atmosphere necessary to the 
production of coffee are possessed by an area of no narrow limit 
in the State of Yera Cruz, while in the States of Jalisco and 
Michoacan the lands yielding coffee crops from perennial trees 
may be measured by the scores of leagues." 

The government is encouraging the production, and if Mex- 
ico is spared political troubles, she is likely to add very largely 
to the world's supply within the next ten years. The same 
causes, however, which have in the past paralyzed the growth 
of the nation's general prosperity have equally retarded the 
progress of this branch of agriculture. The coffee production 
of Mexico has, heretofore, been almost entirely limited to sup- 
plying the home demand, which is quite large; but it is now 
creating a considerable foreign trade, the export to the United 
States for the year ending June 30, 1880, reaching a total of 



COFFEE ITT MEXICO ATTD OTHER COUNTRIES. 155 

6,789,693 pounds, valued at $1,265,970 ; 1879, 8,307,040 pounds ; 
1878, 6,337,063 pounds. The tree is grown chiefly in the States 
of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Colima, on the Sierra, and in the 
mountainous parts of Soiitliern Mexico, Tlie product is classed 
either as coast or mountain coffee, the distinguishing features of 
which are that while the bean of the coast coffee is light and 
spongy, that of the mountain product is hard and flinty. Mexican 
coffee is known in the New York market as Tabasco, Jalapa, Cor- 
dova, and Oaxaca. The first named is a coast coffee, generally of 
poor quality, as it is cultivated in the tierra caliente (hot region), 
lying along the coast of the Gulf of Campeche ; it is the lowest 
grade of Mexican coffee. That designated Jalapa has a small, 
■yellowish bean, rather short and wide, but irregular in size, im- 
perfectly cleaned, and including many broken beans, and those 
covered with patches of the brown inner skin of the berry. The 
Sierra bean is small, with a greenish cast, and approximates in 
character to mountain coffee. It is grown on table-lands, and it 
is not, as a rule, nicely cleaned. 

Cordova furnishes a larger and longer bean, uniform in size, 
well cleaned, and usually green in color. This coffee is often pol- 
ished and used as a substitute for E.io. From the same district 
there is exported a large white bean that is called Mexican Java. 
All of the above, except that named Tabasco, are usually sold 
from first hands under the name of Cordova coffee. Oaxaca 
is a rough, green, mountain coffee, coming from the province 
of Oaxaca and surrounding districts. It has the dark green, 
semi-transparent appearance of a mountain coffee, but unfortu- 
nately is not properly hulled and cleaned, as much of it has the 
inner skin of the berry attached, and many of the beans are 
smashed, owing to the planters using a common roller instead of 
improved machinery. "Wei-e this coffee properly cleaned and care- 
fully assorted, it would rival in appearance and flavor almost any 
upland coffee raised in Costa Rica and Jamaica. In Colima, on 
the west coast, is grown a berry usually called Tepic, the bean, 
when prepared, approaching in style the small flinty Mocha. 
Almost all of it is consumed in the province where grown, selling 
for forty to fifty cents per pound on the plantation, the select pea- 
berry commanding from $i to $1.25 per pound. 



156 



COFFEE. 



In flavor Tabasco is the mildest, Sierra next, then Cordova, 
which closely approaches Rio in strength, but is destitute of its 
harsh, pungent taste. Oaxaca coffee, if free from sour beans, 
drinks like the product of Costa Rica. White Cordova, or Mexi- 
can Java, approaches, when one year old, good Cucuta Maracaibo 
in flavor. Age greatly modifies the rank flavor peculiar to Mexi- 
can coffee. In 1879, 163,508 pounds were imported into San 
Francisco, and in 1880, 44,369 pounds. France takes a large 
part of the Mexican crop. The coffee is usually shipped in 
large grass bales, weighing from 220 to 260 pounds. Occasionally 
lots are received, especially the White Cordova, packed in bags 
made of native hemp, weighing 130 to 140 pounds, the package 
being tied with a heavy rope. JSTow and then half -bales are re- 
ceived, called pockets or mats, and weighing 80 to 100 pounds. 
Actual tare is allowed the purchaser. 



PEODTJCTION AT OTHER POINTS. 

Along the west coast of South America, in the states of Peru, 
Ecuador, and Bolivia, plantations are found, but only from the 
latter state is any coffee exported. The largest quantity exported 
from Bolivia in any one year was 543 tons, and the smallest since 
1867, 76 tons, the average for seven years — 1870-77 — being 307 
tons annually. 

The islands of the Pacific do not contribute any appreciable 
quantity to the world's supply. The Hawaiian Islands export an 
irregular quantity, as will be noted by reference to the following 
table of exports from Honolulu : 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Year. 


Pounds. 


1 

Year. 


Pounds. 


1861 


45,000 
311,000 
341,000 
415,000 


1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 


47,000 
393,000 
202,000 

75,000 


1875 

1876 

1877 


166,000 


1864 


154,000 


1869 


131,000 


1870 





In 1878 the imports of Hawaiian coffee into the United States 
were 118,100 pounds ; in 1879, 40,417 pounds ; in 1880, 77,942 
pounds. From the above figures it appears that Hawaiian coffee 



PRODUCTION AT OTHER POINTS. 157 

cultivation is declining, and this is probably due to the pushing 
of the sugar industry, which flourishes by reason of the recipro- 
city treaty with the United States, which admits sugar into ports 
of the country free of duty, this giving a monopoly to capitalists 
on the Pacific coast owning sugar refineries. These parties have 
opened large sugar estates in the Sandwich Islands, and are mak- 
ing the most of a treaty conferring quite extraordinary privileges, 
and having several years yet to run. The legislation which au- 
thorized this treaty was not above suspicion, and, while it may 
succeed in its object and enrich a few persons who were in a 
position to monopolize its benefits, it is unjust to our American 
sugar industry and opposed to the time-honored principle of no 
favoritism, which has heretofore ruled in the foreign policy of 
the United States. 

In the island of Taviuni, in the Fiji group, there are some 
half dozen coffee-estates, ranging in area from fifty to three hun- 
dred acres. Coffee-trees here are just coming into bearing (1880). 
At the Sydney exhibition the first gold medal was awarded to an 
exhibit of coffee from Fiji. The leaf disease has, however, made 
its appearance on some of the estates. So far as its present rela- 
tions to the world's supply are concerned, Fiji is scarcely worth 
the mention. Tahiti grows a few tons annually. 

Is the United States to enter the lists as a coffee-producing 
country ? From the Annual Report of the Agricultural Bureau 
(18T9) it appears that coffee has been successfully cultivated 
within our own borders. A Mrs. Julia Atzeroth, of Braiden 
Town, Manatee County, Florida, sent to Commissioner Le Due a 
branch of coffee grown in the open air, together with the follow- 
ing letter : 

Gen. W. G. Le Due, Commissioner, Washington, D. G.: 

Dear Sir — Yours of the 20th of last month arrived safe, and I can assure 
you that I felt greatly honored to find that you appreciate my experiment in 
growing coffee, and that mine should be the only coffee in the United States. I 
feel sure it can be successfully grown farther south, where frost never comes, 
and there is an abundance of land and soil suited to its growth. My trees are 
now attracting considerable attention. Many persons come to see them and ask 
for seed. 

I have given some seed, and I will try to encourage its cultivation, to im- 
prove the country thereby. That is why I tried it, and now I feel satisfied it 



158 COFFEE. 

will be a success, if fairly tried. I came to this State some thirty years ago, 
and am one of the first settlers in Manatee. I would like to see you and tell 
you my experience in Florida. I would not exchange my home for any other 
State I know of. Florida needs nothing but energy and industry to make its 
people independent. 



The department has supplied Mrs. Atzeroth with a number of 
young trees with which to enlarge her experiment, and also fur- 
nish other persons in the same locality, and farther south, with 
plants which should, if carefully planted and successfully culti- 
vated, bear coffee within five years. 

It is something to know that a lodgment has been effected on 
the coast of Florida, and though four trees, so far, are known to 
have been successfully grown and fruited, yet whether the coffee 
will ripen thoroughly and prove as profitable here as it has done 
in other countries is yet to be determined. 

The following letter from a resident of Bogota, bearing on the 
subject of coffee-production in the United States, is of interest, 
because of its intelligent treatment of the subject, and the amount 
of information therein contained. Commissioner Le Due is also 
entitled to much credit for his enterprise and originality in en- 
deavoring to promote the agricultural welfare of the country, not 
only in this, but in many other directions. 



To the Hon. Wm. G. Le Due, Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, B. G. , 
U. 8. A. : 

Sir — I have noticed a circular issued by the department seeking informa- 
tion in regard to coffee. As I have frequently passed through the cold-country 
coffee region in this neighborhood, and have made it a point to inform myself 
as to the particulars of the culture and habits of the plant, I take the liberty of 
writing you as follows : 

It is true that the coffee does not require a very hot climate. In fact, that 
which is raised in the colder regions is most highly esteemed and brings the 
highest price in the home and European markets. 

Its upward range is limited by the frost-liue, as is that of the orange, plan- 
tain, and bamboo. In a table compiled from Boussingault and Humboldt, the 
coffee appears as the hardiest of these, enduring a temperature one degree 
colder than the orange, three colder than the plantain, and five colder than the 
bamboo. Local authorities assure me this is a mistake as regards the orange, 
which is more hardy than the coffee. An English writer fixes on the bamboo 



PEODUCTION AT OTHER POINTS. 159 

as a test, saying that wherever it grows the climate is suitable for coffee. 
There seems to be no doubt that the coffee will endure more cold than the bam- 
boo, so that the latter fails to serve as an indication of the northern limit of the 
coffee. And for this reason, both the coffee and the orange will grow at a 
height so cold as to prevent their having fruit. But as the Southern summer 
has a genuine hot-country temperature, the coffee would bear, as the orange 
does, in the season, if it could be carried through the winter. 

This is the crucial point. Even in the plantations below the frost-line the 
coffee suffers at times from an extraordinary visitation of frost, or from the cold 
produced by a hail-storm, and it is generally admitted that a frost will kill it. 
On the other hand, it is said to grow, in peculiar circumstances, above the frost- 
line. Here in Bogota, for instance (temperature G0° F.), it will grow, without 
bearing, in the open air about the houses, but it will not live out on the plain 
where there are frosts so heavy as to often kill the potato. This is merely an 
illustration of the fact, well understood in the North, that a frost, like a dew- 
fall, and unlike a freeze, can be guarded against by a slight covering — the shade 
of a tree or building often serving to protect the vegetation in its vicinity while 
that more exposed is blighted. Now it is deemed essential that the coffee-plant 
should be shaded. The usual plan is to plant the coffee and the plantain 
together, so that the latter, by its rapid growth, may furnish shade before the 
coffee needs it. Some prefer to plant, also, certain fruit-trees to take the place 
of the plantain at a later date. The excessive heat of the summer in the Gulf 
States would certainly call for a liberal shading of the plantations. The ques- 
tion then arises as to whether the shade provided for summer would serve to 
protect the plants from frost in the winter. As I have no personal knowledge 
of the severity of the winter or of the character and habits of the trees available 
for this purpose, I cannot form even an opinion as to the probability of the suc- 
cess of the experiment. The question would still present itself whether it 
might not be feasible to protect the plants by keeping the ground wet, which is 
said to be sufficient to save the potatoes here, or by coverings of straw, or by 
smoldering fires raising clouds of smoke on exceptionally cold nights. I believe 
that the large profits of the coffee culture would warrant even these measures 
if they were found to serve the purpose. 

The best crops that I have seen have been on a rich black loam, too rocky to 
be worked with the plow, and on the slopes of ravines. It is said that the plant 
dies out in a few years on clay soil. But the Liberian plant is said to flourish 
on such soil. It belongs, however, to the very hottest of climates. I attribute 
the better condition of the plants on sloping ground to the fact of their being 
more shaded. If the shedding of water more readily has anything to do with 
it, that could be effected on level ground by proper drainage. It is generally 
held that the coffee will not flourish on wet ground, though the best plants I 
ever saw were within a few feet of an unfailing stream. 

The fact is that agriculture in tropical countries is done in such a slovenly 
manner ; so few experiments are tried, and those few so carelessly ; there is 
such a lack of accurate observation and comparison of notes, as well as of enter- 
prise and sound judgment, that it is difficult to arrive at broad and accurate 
generalizations on many of these subjects. As a rule, each man attributes to 



160 COFFEE. 

the nature of the plant effects which arise from the accidents of his location or 
treatment. 

As with all small fruits, the perfection of the coffee-berry depends on a good 
supply of moisture. In the tropics the principal crops follow immediately after 
the close of the rainy seasons, and if the rain fails the crops are light, as the 
berries dry up and fall off without ripening. The heavy summer rains in the 
Southern States would probably come just at the right time. But I should not 
advise any one to put in coffee on a piece of ground that could not be irrigated, 
though it is often done. 

Practice varies in regard to the number of plants to the acre. After looking 
over a plantation, noting the plants in best condition, and making measure- 
ments, I determined, to my own satisfaction, that the best way, in a cold coun- 
try, at least, is to plant in rows four yards apart and two yards apart in the 
row. The branches interlock in the row (which some regard as necessary), and 
the distance between the rows allows of moving about for cultivating and gath- 
ering. By trimming, the foliage can be made as open or as crowded as may be 
deemed best, while the wider spaces between the rows allow of the extension of 
the branches in that direction if they should be crowded in the other. This 
gives about 600 plants to the acre. 

The yield is estimated sometimes as low as two pounds to the plant. But 
the same cultivator who gives me this figure says he is convinced that the in- 
crease of the yield indefinitely is only a question of improved cultivation. A 
more usual estimate is three pounds. A Scotchman in the neighborhood, who 
has brought more intelligence and care to the examination of the matter than 
any other cultivator here, claims to have plants under special cultivation that 
yield ten pounds each. This is about the figure claimed for the Liberian plant. 
No one could foretell what would be the result of transferring the plant to a 
country where it would have but one bearing season, instead of two, as here ; 
but it is natural to suppose that it would exert itself with exceptional vigor in 
that one season. In all probability the more careful and judicious treatment 
that it would there receive would produce results even beyond those commonly 
attained in this country. 

It is claimed that the Liberian plant, and perhaps some others in the 
hot country, are in full bearing at three years of age. This is not true of the 
colder country, where they just begin to bear at three years, and attain their 
maturity at from five to seven years. Here is the chief expense of getting up 
a plantation. The first investment has to lie unproductive, and the weeds 
have to be fought unceasingly through these years. When once the plants 
obtain their growth their shade keeps the weeds down almost without further 
attention. 

It is usual here to estimate the expense roughly as half the value of the cof- 
fee. That raised in this neighborhood was sold last year in Bogota or Honda 
at about twenty cents per pound, and the planters counted that half clear ; 
that is, they allowed ten cents a pound for expenses. The Scotchman above 
mentioned has satisfied himself that the cost of production is but five cents a 
pound. 

I conclude, then, that coffee can be raised successfully over a large part of 



PEODUCTION AT OTHER POINTS. 161 

California and in the Lower Colorado and Rio Grande Valleys, where irrigation 
is practicable ; that it is exceedingly doubtful whether it could be raised in the 
Gulf States ; that there may be a possibility of this being accomplished through 
careful experiment and persistent effort, having a view to the discovery of a 
method of cultivation adapted to the climate or to the production of a hardier 
variety, as was done in Russia in the case of wheat ; that the importance of the 
matter, viewed in relation not only to the aggregate cost of importations into 
the United States, but considered also as one of the most profitable branches 
of agriculture, which it certainly is, would justify almost any outlay necessary 
to test the question systematically and thoroughly. 

Willis Weaver. 

Bogota, October 18, 1879. 
11 



CHAPTEK XXI. 



ADULTERATION OF COFFEE. 



A PEiMAEY requisite for making a good cup of coffee is, of 
course, coffee. 

This might appear a superfluous statement, but, in reality, it 
deserves to be carefully kept in view by the consumer, considering 
the number of preposterous substances now in the markets of the 
world, from which many of our confiding and deluded fellow-men 
daily endeavor to extract the much-desired beverage. 

The adulteration of coffee and the vast scale on which it is 
practised, are well-known facts. 

I have already, for many reasons, dwelt on the advisability of 
the rule that every family should grind their own coffee. "Were 
this rule invariably observed by the entire coffee-consuming pub- 
lic, coffee adulteration would soon be relegated into the limbo of 
lost arts. I have, indeed, heard of a contrivance patented, years 
ago, by an ingenious Englishman, for the purpose of moulding 
chicory and other substances into coffee-beans. But this form of 
adulteration, even though improved by the fertile minds of our 
countrymen, would ever be comparatively easy of detection, and 
consequently much less to be dreaded than adulterants in the 
treacherous disguise of the ground article. 

Coffee consumers who, finding it impossible or inconvenient 
to do the grinding at home, purchase their coffee already ground 
(and they are numbered by thousands), tread a path beset with 
snares and delusions. All trouble in this direction can be avoided 
when resident quite a distance from the store or roasting establish- 
ment, by using the whole coffee sold in pound packages bearing 
the guarantee of well-known houses. The powder which they 



ADULTERATION OF COFFEE. 163 

carry home from tho retail grocery, in the fond belief that it is 
coifee, may not contain more than a mere sprinkling of the aro- 
matic berry, while the rest is made up of worthless or even nox- 
ious substances, thrown in to make bulk and give color to the 
decoction when made. 

All sorts of ingredients have been used in the sophistication of 
coffee, the range extending all the way from insipid vegetables to 
such abominations as the haked liver of animals. 

In the works of English chemists and the reports of Parlia- 
mentary Committees, dating from ten to twenty-five years back, 
we find that chicory, roasted grain, roasted peas and beans, car- 
rots, parsnips, potatoes, acorns, mangold-wurzel, lupins, sawdust, 
Venetian red, and fragments of the baked liver of oxen and 
horses were severally detected in samples of so-called ground 
coffee sold in the London shops (Hassall). So far, indeed, was 
the practice carried, that it was scarcely possible at that time to 
procure samples, no matter at what price, that were not largel}^ 
adulterated. Appropriate legislation and the enlightenment of 
the public mind on this subject have since, to a great extent, 
checked these practices and led to a somewhat healthier condition 
of the coffee trade in the English market ; but the evil still 
flourishes in the United States, although, so far as I am aware, 
nothing w^orse than ground peas, rye, and chicory are used for the 
purpose of adulteration. 

The story is told of a traveller, who, stopping at a country 
hotel somewhere between the Mississippi and the Alleghanies, 
astonished the proprietor by engulfing cup after cup of the hotel's 
coffee. " You seem to be very fond of coffee, sir," could not but 
remark the host, as he tendered the stranger his fifth cup of the 
liquid. " I am indeed, sir," replied the other, gravely, " I always 
take one cup of coffee at breakfast, and I am still in hopes of ar- 
riving at that quantity before I leave this table. "Will you favor 
me, sir, with another cup or two of this preparation ? " 

If that persistent coffee-drinker is yet in the land, he must 
still very often find himself in the necessity of resorting to the 
same expedient. 

I^or are complaints like the following unf requently seen in the 
public prints : 



164 COFFEE. 



BAD COFFEE IN THE RESTAXJEANTS. 

To THE Editor of the Herald : 

Please call the attention of the Board of Health to the article (bad coffee) 
served in city restaurants. It is damaging to the constitution of man, and 
should not be allowed to be sold. 

E. K. Young, 

The fact is, at very few, if any, of the average eating-houses, 
or restaurants, can a person procure a cup of unadulterated coffee. 
And in the vast majority of poorer households, the stuff which 
they purchase and use under the name of coffee is merely a com- 
pound of extraneous substances which have nothing in common 
with coffee hut the color when roasted and ground. 

The followmg statement occurs in a copy of the Scientific 
American^ published toward the close of our late war : 

" The editor of the Baltimore American lately visited the 
commissary department of one of the large military hospitals, and 
noticed several barrels of dried coffee-grounds, the purpose where- 
of excited his curiosity. The polite commissary informed him 
that they received twelve dollars a barrel for the grounds, ' But 
what is it purchased for ? ' he asked. ' Well,' said the commis- 
sary, hesitatingly, 'it is re- aromatized by the transforming hand 
of modern chemistry, and put up in packages, which are decorated 
with attractive labels and high-sounding names,' " 

The principal adulterants, however, now resorted to in this 
country, as before stated, are chicory and roasted rye and peas. 
These ingredients are palmed off in vast quantities on the Ameri- 
can coffee-drinker. 

All of the so-called patent or proprietary ground coffees, 
which in various styles of showy packages and under seductive 
titles are commended to the consumer, consist of nothing but a 
mixture of those adulterants (chiefly rye and peas) with more or 
less of the genuine substance. 

The high prices which have prevailed in the coffee market 
since 1871, and which are given in another chapter, have greatly 
stimulated the adulteration of coffee in the United States, The 
Americaoi Grocer of April 29, 1876, commenting on the general 
question of the coffee-supply, remarks : 



ADULTERATIOIT OF COFFEE. lOij 

" Another point to be taken into consideration, which has 
been ahnost completely lost sight of, is the rapid increase in the 
ground-coffee business, which has reached its present proportions 
within the past two years, and especially last year, 

" The six hundred coffee and spice-mills of this country use 
over one thousand roasting-machines, with a capacity of 1,200,000 
pounds a day. These mills grind and put up coffee, either in 
packages or in bulk, and, as a rule, wherever grinding is done, 
there adulteration is practised. A prominent manufacturer says 
the average basis for this business is the following proportion to 
every 1,000 pounds : 

Roasted peas 400 pounds. 

Roasted rye 200 " 

Roasted chicory 100 " 

Other ingredients 50 " 

Roasted coffee (best qualities) 250 " 

1,000 pounds. 

■ " This can be sold at a profit to the wholesale merchant at 
twenty cents currency per pound, allowing a discount of ten to 
twenty per cent., and is sold by retailers at twenty-five cents cur- 
rency. 

" The determined way in which the ground coffee business is 
being pushed, the great quantity now produced, and the low 
prices at which it is furnished render it evident that, sooner or 
later, the importer will find it an important element in his calcu- 
lations determining the consumption of pure coffee in this country." 

What was true in 1876 is true to-day, but we are happy to 
say, not to so great an extent. This is chiefly due to a reduction 
in the price of coffee, thus increasing the purchasing power of 
consumers ; and to the general introduction of the coffee-mill into 
families and also into retail stores. Extremely high prices tend 
to increase the sale of adulterated coffee in packages, wOiile cheap 
coffee curtails the demand to very narrow limits. Many brands 
of ground coffee that were popular from 1862 to 1870 did not 
contain more than five or ten per cent, of pure coffee, and yet 
they were endorsed as being of superior quality by letters of 



166 COFFEE. 

recommendation received from persons of distinction, probably in 
return for a gift of a box of so-called coffee. 

The root of dandelion, first dried and ground, makes a very 
tolerable substitute for coffee, perhaps preferable to chicory, but 
it is not used to any considerable extent. Some years ago a brand 
of prepared coffee was put upon the market under the name of 
" Dandelion Coffee ; " but only a small proportion was really the 
dandelion root, the article being largely composed of ground peas 
and rye, probably owing to the difficulty of procuring any consid- 
erable quantity of dandelion. 

There are sold to a considerable extent, both in this country 
and in Europe, various preparations called " Coffee Essences." 
Some of these are in the form of liquids put up in bottles, others 
in the shape of dry, granular particles, which are usually com- 
pressed into rolls, or packets, which are neatly covered with foil, 
paper, and various colored labels. These preparations are, almost 
without exception, the veriest trash, being composed of burnt sugar 
in its various forms, principally of the commonest " Black Jack " 
syrup or molasses — the residuum left in the refining of sugars, 
which is mixed with chicory, the moisture of which is evaporated 
and the rest of it finally roasted, or burnt, to a point where, when 
again diluted with water, it gives a dark-colored liquid, somewhat 
resembling, in ajypearance,, strong coffee. In some of these so-called 
coffee essences various chemicals are used to simulate the genuine 
coffee flavor, and in a very few of them there may be a trifle of 
genuine extract of coffee. It may be said that these worthless 
compounds are principally used to beguile the laboring classes, 
and others who are obliged to live in cheap boarding-houses, into 
the idea that the dark-colored liquid which is put before them un- 
der the name of coffee is a strong infusion of the genuine article, 
when, in reality, if there is any coffee at all in the decoction, it is 
infinitesimal in quantity, the dark-colored material being added to 
give it the appearance of strength. The expense of producing a 
strong, pure, dark-colored extract of coffee has heretofore placed 
the article beyond the purse of the poorer classes of consumers ; 
hence, the almost universal use, in whole or in part, of substitutes, 
which, as above shown, are in turn frequently sophisticated by 
the use of these so-called " coffee essences." 



ADULTEEATION OF COFFEE. 167 

It may not be amiss, in connection with the subject of coffee 
adulteration, to say a few words here of what is termed " glossing " 
roasted coffee. The " gloss," which is made of various starches, 
glues, and mosses, is applied to the coffee while hot, giving the 
coffee an even coating which hardens as it cools. It is claimed 
that the gloss fills up the pores of the coffee, retaining its strength 
and aroma, besides having a tendency to clear it when the coffee 
is boiled. I am inclined to think that these benefits are over- 
rated, that they are more apparent than real, and that the practice 
tends to prevent that crispness of the coffee, which is desirable in 
grinding. On the whole, it tends rather to injure the flavor 
than to improve it. 

Many good judges of coffee, however, dissent from this opinion, 
and so great has been the demand for the glossed roasted coffee 
that a patent has been claimed for the process, and an interesting 
discussion of its validity, in the shape of an extract from the 
American Grocer, will be found in the Appendix to this work. 

After expatiating on the prevalence of adulterants in ground 
coffee, it is proper to state that the consumer has it usually in his 
power to solve, by several simple and practical experiments, the 
question as to M^hether a sample of ground coffee is adulterated or 
not, although, of course, the best way is to buy the coffee in the 
bean, and thus avoid all suspicion. 

The following tests are suggested by Dr. Ilassall, in his work 
on " Food : " 

1. Notice whether the ground coffee " cakes " when pressed 
between the fingers or in the paper in which it is folded ; if so, 
there is good reason to believe that it is adulterated, probably with 
chicory. 

2. Place a few pinches of the suspected coffee upon some 
water in a wine-glass ; if part floats and part sinks, it may be pre- 
sumed that it is adulterated either with chicory, roasted grain, or 
some analogous substance. Ground coffee is enveloped in an oily 
substance which prevents its imbibing the water, while the other 
substances absorb the water and gradually subside to the bottom 
to a greater or less extent. 

This test, however, sometimes gives imperfect results, as occa- 
sionally lard or similar stuff used in roasting the chicory will 



168 COFFEE. 

cause it to float. In most instances, also, part of tlie coffee sub- 
sides with the chicory and part of the latter remains on the sur- 
face with the coffee, and after a lapse of a short time both coffee 
aud chicory fall to the bottom. 

3. If the cold water to which a portion of ground coffee has 
been added quickly becomes deeply colored, it is an evidence of 
the presence of some roasted vegetable substance or burnt sugar ; 
for, when coffee only is added to water, the liquid becomes 
scarcely colored for some time. 

4. Make a boiling aqueous solution with the coffee ; if it be 
an infusion of pure coffee, it will be found thin and limpid ; if, 
on the contrary, it be adulterated with any substance containing 
much gum and starch (as rye, peas, etc.), it will be thick and 
mucilaginous. 

Lastly, spread out, on a piece of glass, a little ground coffee 
and moisten it with a few drops of water ; if you are enabled to 
pick out, by means of a needle, minute pieces of a substance of a 
soft consistence, the coffee is doubtless adulterated ; for the parti- 
cles of the coffee-seed are hard and resisting, and do not become 
soft even after prolonged immersion in water. 

These simple means will usually suffice to detect the general 
fact of adulteration. To determine the character of the adulter- 
ants used, we must appeal to science ; and for this purpose, as 
for so many others, the microscope proves the most powerful 
auxiliary and most reliable detective. 

Yiewed under the magnifying-glass, the component fibres and 
elementary structures of the different ground subscances present 
peculiarities and characters that enable an experienced observer 
to identify, beyond a doubt, the particular adulterant or adulter- 
ants employed. 

Chicory is distinguished by the size, form, and ready separa- 
tion of the component cells of the root, as well as by the presence 
of an abundance of spiral vessels of the dotted form. Roasted 
cereals, beans, etc., by the respective size, form, and other charac- 
ters of the starch granules of which the grains are principally 
composed. Figure 1 (Plate I.) gives the appearance, magnified 
to one hundred and forty diameters, of a fragment of roasted 
coffee ; Fig. 2 (Plate I.), that of a fragment of roasted chicory ; 



Plate I. 




Fig. 1. — Fragment of Roasted Coffee. 




Fig. 3. — Roasted Chicory Root. 



Plate II. 




Fig. 1. — Fragment Genuine Ground Coffee. 




Fig. 3. — Fragment Ground Cofpee Adulterated with Chicory. 
«, a, Coffee. , &, 6, Chicory 



ADULTEEATIOlSr OF COFFEE. 169 

Fig. 1 (Plate II.) exhibits a fragment of genuine ground coffee; 
Ficr. 2 (Plate II.), a sample of ground coffee adulterated with 
chicory, both magnified one hundred and forty diameters. 

No fraud or absurdity e\'er lacked a voice raised in defence 
or extenuation ; and an occasional good word has been put in for 
the mixture of other substances with coifee. Persons, I am will- 
ing to suppose, out of the patent- coffee business, may be foimd 
who think the admixture of chicory or other adulterants an 
improvement on pure coffee. But while there is no discussing 
the eccentricities of individual tastes, I have no fear of the 
spreading of such heresy. I have too high an opinion both of 
coffee and of my fellow-men to admit such a possibility. As to 
the statement that in some parts of Europe — in France, for 
instance — a majority of coffee-drinkers prefer the beverage with 
an infusion of chicory, I am inclined to think, with Dr. Hassall, 
that it is entirely incorrect. I am, indeed, convinced, as he is, that 
the undoubtedly large consumption of chicory in France is trace- 
able merely to the practice of economy in small things, so charac- 
teristic of the middle and lower classes in that country, and not 
to the gratification of a peculiar taste. I have certainly never 
heard of anybody being avowedly invited there to take a cup of 
" chicory and coffee," and the following account, which has been 
going the rounds of the French papers, of how the President of 
the French Eepublic obtained a cup of pure coffee, indicates that 
chicory there, as well as here, is esteemed simply an adulteration. 

HOW M. GEEVY GOT A CUP OF COFFEE. 

Everybody knows that M. Grevy never takes wine, not even at 
dinner. But like M. Thiers, he is a passionate lover of coffee. 
To be certain of having his favorite beverage of the best quality, 
he always, when he can, prepares it himself. Some years ago he 
was invited, with a friend, M. Bethmont, to a hunting party by 
M. Menier, the celebrated manufacturer of chocolate, at Noisiel. 
It happened that M. Grevy and M. Bethmont lost themselves in 
the forest, and, in trying to find their way, they stumbled upon a 
little wine-house, and, tired out, stopped for a rest. They asked 
for something to drink. M. Bethmont found his wine excellent, 
but, as usual, M. Grevy would not drink. He wanted coffee, 



170 COFFEE. 

but he was afraid of the decoction which would be brought him. 
He got a good cup, however, and this is how he managed it : 

" Have you anj chicory ? " he said to the man. 

"Yes, sir." 

*' Brins: me some." 

Soon the proprietor returned with a small can of chicory, 

" Is that all you have ? " asked M. Grevy. 

" We have a little more." 

" Bring me the rest." 

When he came again with another can of chicory, M. Grevy 
said: 

" You have no more ? " 

"1^0, sir." 

" Yery well. Now go and make me a cup of coffee." 



CHAPTER XXII. 

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF COFFEE ITS MEDICINAL AND OTHER 

PROPEBTIES. 

It will prove profitable to examine briefly the verdict rendered 
by cliemistry and physiology respecting the properties of coffee 
and its so-called substitutes. The researches of scientists inform 
us that coffee owes its individuality, if I may so term it, to three 
characteristic constituents : a volatile aromatic oil called caffeone ; 
an element called caifeine, identical with the theine of tea ; and 
a kind of tannic acid, analogous to that of tea, called caffeic acid. 
Each of these elements possesses virtues and powers of its own, 
and plays a part in the general effect produced by coffee. 

To the caffeone, or essential oil, which, when chemically sepa- 
rated by ether, presents the consistency of cocoa-butter, is due 
the peculiar and delicious aroma given out by coffee in roasting. 
Taken alone, the oil is found to produce a gentle perspiration and 
agreeable excitement, and to stimulate the mental faculties, while 
it retards, in a marked degree, the process of assimilation and, con- 
sequently, the waste of tissue. It exercises also an aperient effect 
on the bowels. Over-doses bring on sleeplessness and symptoms 
of congestion. 

Caffeine, which is inodorous, but has a slightly bitter taste, in 
creases the nervous activity of the system ; the heart and pulse are 
quickened, the imagination enlivened. Administered in stronger 
doses, it causes trembling and a sort of intoxication, not unlike 
that resulting from alcoholic stimulants. It is said also to dimin- 
ish the waste of organic tissue. 

The caffeic acid, as it exists in the raw bean, has a decidedly 
astringent tendency. This, however, is modified in the roasting, 
and, besides, counteracted by the aperient properties of the caf- 



172 COFFEE. 

feone. Some uncertainty seems to prevail, as yet, as to the full 
agency of this acid, some chemists ascribing to it the flavor and 
chief properties of coffee as a beverage. 

United, acting and reacting npon each other, modified in their 
specific properties by their combination, these three elements give 
rise to the general properties of coffee, which are summed up as 
follows by Professor Johnstone : " It exhilarates, arouses, and 
keeps awake. It counteracts the stupor occasioned by fatigue, 
by disease, or by opium ; it allays hunger to a certain extent, gives 
to the weary increased strength and vigor, and imparts a feeling 
of comfort and repose. Its physiological effects upon the system, 
so far as they have been investigated, appear to be that, while it 
makes the brain more active, it soothes the body generally, makes 
the change and waste of tissue slower, and the demand for food 
in consequence less. All these efi^ects it owes to the conjoint 
action of three ingredients very similar to those contained in tea." 

It is quite plain that this beneficent chemical trinity is entitled 
to the deepest reverence of the true lover of coffee, and deserves 
a high niche in the pantheon of gastronomic deities. 

The identical principle of caifeine and elements analogous to 
caffeone and caffeic acid occur in tea, and closely allied principles 
in cocoa, as well as in the leaves and seeds of the South Amer- 
ican plants which furnish the Yerba Mate, or Paraguay tea, and 
the Guarana bread of Brazil — thus seemingly forming a requi- 
site in the diet of nearly the whole of mankind. 

]S^either these principles, nor analogous constituents, is found 
in any of the adulterants of coffee ; the latter can have, therefore, 
none of the peculiar properties of coffee. They are purely and 
simply trash, and a fraud both upon the purse and the stomach 
of the consumer. 

Dr. Hassall contrasts chicory and coffee in the following words : 

" They differ from each other in their botanical nature, in 
chemical composition, and in physiological action and properties. 

" Coffee is the fruit or seed of a tree, while chicory is the 
succulent root of a herbaceous plant. Xow, it is a well-ascer- 
tained fact that, of all parts of vegetables, the fruit and seeds 
usually possess the most active properties ; this is no doubt due 
to the circumstance of their being freely exposed to the influence 



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF COFFEE. 173 

of liglit and air — agencies wliicli promote chemical changes in the 
plant, and so effect the elaljoration of those complex organic sub- 
stances on whicli the activity of vegetables depends. On the other 
hand, it must be manifest that, as the roots are removed from the 
influence of these powerful agencies, they cannot be so richly 
endowed with active properties ; and, indeed, there are but few 
roots which contain either alkaloid or volatile oil — the constitu- 
ents which give to coffee its peculiar virtues. The distinction, 
therefore, between the properties of the seeds and roots of plants 
is very important, and it is especially so in the case before us. 

" The infusion of the one is heavy, mawkish, and nearly des- 
titute of aroma ; tliat of the other is light, fragrant, and refreshing. 

" Coffee contains, as already shown, at least three active prin- 
ciples, viz. : the volatile oil, the tannm, and the alkaloid caffeine ; 
in chicory there are no analogous constituents. 

" Coffee exerts on the system marked and highly important 
physiological effects, of a beneficial character. There is no proof 
that chicory exerts any one of these effects, while it is veiy ques- 
tionable whether the properties which it does possess are not 
really hurtful." 

As to nutritiveness, chicory possesses only about one-half as 
much nitrogenous substance as coffee ; and even that in no way bene- 
fits the drinker of the decoction, as these su])stances are almost 
entirely insoluble in water and are thrown away with the dregs. 
But, granting that a man should, for economy's sake, be content 
to drink a mixture of coffee and chicory, he could not with any 
certainty obtain even this. It has been proved that this substance, 
so largely used for adulterating purposes, is itself largely adul- 
terated ; in fact, all of the ingredients which have been detected 
in adulterated coffee, and which we have before enumerated, have 
also been discovered in powdered chicory. Parsnips, carrots, peas, 
and similar vegetables are chiefly used in tliis sophistication, and 
a compound is thus formed which can be sold under the market 
price at which genuine chicory can be had. Chicory is not grown 
to any extent in the United States, the attempts at culture and 
manufacture having given a poor, woody product, much inferior 
to that of foreign growth. The article is imported from Europe, 
where it is raised principally in Genuany, France, Belgium, and 



174 COFFEE. 

Holland. From July 1, 1878^ to June 30, 1879, there were im- 
ported 4,002,566 pounds of chicory, valued at $144,688 ; during the 
same period the coffee imports amounted to 377,848,473 pounds, 
representing $47,356,819. In other words, supposing the ratio of 
consumption to importation and stocks to have been similar, for 
every one hundred pounds of coffee only 1.06 pound of chicory 
was consumed. This furnishes additional evidence of what I 
have already stated with regard to the adulterants employed by 
our manufacturers of patent coffees. They have at hand an abun- 
dance of the cheapest materials, and resort but very sparingly to 
the comparatively expensive article of chicory. 

If I have allotted so much space to combating the claims of 
chicory, it is because these claims have obtained a certain cur- 
rency, in spite of their apocryphal character, and also because, by 
reducing the very stronghold of plausible adulteration, the minor 
positions fall as a matter of course. The sooner the tampering 
with the purity of coffee is divested of all hypocritical pretences 
and given its proper name — sheer adulteration — the better it will 
be for the great consuming public. 

The nutriment pretended to be derived from an infusion of 
roasted cereals is infinitesimal, the starchy matter of which they 
are mostly composed being reduced into charcoal during the roast- 
ing, and " a single mouthful of wholesome bread contains more 
nourishment than half a dozen cups of a beverage made from 
roasted corn." 

The subjoined analysis of coffee, raw and roasted, is given by 
Professor Hassall : 

Raw. Roasted. 

Water 8.26 0.36 

Cane sugar 8.18 1.84 

Caffeine 1.10 1.06 

Fat 11.42 8.30 

Gluten 10.68 12.03 

Extractive (caramel) gum, tannin. 14.03 26.28 

Cellulose, etc 42.36 - 44.96 

Ash 3.97 5.17 

100.00 100.00 



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF COFFEE. 175 

In another form, according to Payen, the analysis of unroasted 
coffee gives the following results : 

Water 12.00 

Flesh-formers 14.75 

Heat-givers 66.25 

Mineral matter Y.OO 



100.00 



The Journal of Pharmace^itical Chemistry contains the fol- 
lowing in relation to the experiments of Dr. C. O. Cecil, of St. 
Petersburg, upon the oil of roasted coffee : 

" Although the coffee-bean belongs to our daily food, we are 
still uncertain of the chemical nature and composition of the pro- 
ducts of roasting coffee, and of oil of coffee, one of the important 
characteristic constituents of the bean. The existence of a coffee 
oil makes itself known in a striking manner by its roasting, for 
this oil, driven out of the beans by the heat, is partially vola- 
tilized, and, together with other products of the roasting, produces 
the characteristic aroma of roasted coffee, an odor possessed by no 
other substance. In very strong black coffee, too, we can see this 
oil like little drops of grease floating on it. The amount of oil in 
coffee varies from eight to thirteen per cent., and at least half of 
this is lost in roasting, so that it would be a paying experiment to 
attempt to collect this oil, especially in large establishments where 
much coffee is burned and several pounds of oil are dissipated 
daily. In 1878, not less than five hundred thousand tons of coffee 
were consumed, so that the amount of oil that might have been 
collected was very considerable. Dr. Cech tried the experiment, 
in one of the large roasting establishments of Berlin, of connect- 
ing the roasting drum vs^ith a cooling apparatus and a receiver, so 
as to condense and collect the volatile and oily products of the 
roasting. At first there is scarcely any gas generated in the 
drums, but after the beans are browned and the whole mass has 
been heated to the temperatm-e where the oil evaporates, such a 
quantity of the volatile aromatic oil is generated that it trickles 
down the walls of the chamber in which the beans are shovelled 
and cooled after coming from the drums. Unfortunately, the 



176 COFFEE. 

manipulations of roasting are at present such that tliis very cool- 
ing and reshovelling of hot beans must be done in the open air, 
and is the reason that it is not possible to catch and condense 
the vapors so abundantly liberated. Practice has proven that at 
the very moment when the beans turn brown and the first vapors 
begin to be given off it is absolutely necessary to pull the drum 
out of the roasting furnace and rapidly cool the coffee by shovel- 
ling and reshovelling in the air, or there is danger of its taking fire 
in the furnace and burning to a coal. Nevertheless it might be 
feasible to connect the drums with an exhauster so as to condense 
the gases in a receiver, and at the same time cool the bean enough 
to prevent its taking fire. Cecil has no doubt that the oil obtained 
in this manner would find use, at a profit, in making liqueurs. To 
study the properties of oil of coffee. Dr. Cech pounded up fifty 
pounds of different kinds of coffee in a mortar, and then extracted 
it with alcohol and ether, obtaining about 1,200 grammes (two 
and a half pounds) of oil of coffee. The beans extracted by him 
were not of equal value as regards the yield of oil, for while some 
contained as high as thirteen per cent., other kinds fell below 
eight per cent. The oil of coffee is a green, thick, transparent 
oil, and after some time a few long needles were deposited from 
it. These proved to be caffeine. Since caffeine is not extracted 
from the exhausted beans by ether, and very little of it is taken 
up by the alcohol employed, the coffee from which the oil has 
been extracted could be employed for the manufacture of caffeine. 
The coffee oil became turbid in half a year, although it was kept 
in hermetically closed bottles. Small groups of crystals were 
formed in the middle of the liquid, and slowly settled to the bot- 
tom, and at the end of three years the bottle was two-thirds full 
of a dirty mass of crystals, consisting of the solid fatty acids, but 
the upper layer of the liquid remained for years transparent, clear, 
and of a beautiful green color, proving that a portion of coffee oil 
consists of liquid oleic acid." 

Recently there appeared in the Physician and Surgeon, a pa- 
per from the pen of Prof. Albert B. Prescott, of the University 
of Michigan, from which it appears that the tannin in the coffee- 
berry is not over about one-third the quantity of that in tea- 
leaves ; it may be considerably less. Six samples of coffee were 



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF COFFEE. 



177 



tested, as in the tea, for the amount of sohible tannin, and steeped 
in fifty parts of water. 



Name of CofiEee. 



1. Maracaibo . . 

2. Mocha 

3. Java 

4. Rio 

5. French Best 

6. Arbuckle . . . 

Averap:e. . . 



Price per 

pound. 



28 cts. 
22 " 
30 " 
2(5 " 
2') " 
25 " 



Tannin Dissolved by — 
6 Minutes' 10 Minutes' 20 Minutes' 



steeping. 



0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 
0.00 



steeping. 



0.00 
0.00 
trace. 
0.00 
trace. 
O.LO 



steeping. 



0.01 
0.03 
0.20 
0.02 
0.2.5 
0.00 

0.08 



30 Minutes' 
steeping. 



0.35 

O.GO 
1.43 
0.73 
1.80 
0.09 

0.88 



CofPee and tea as beverages in actual use were also taken and 
analyzed and the amount of tannin estimated, with the result of 
showing that on an average the tea contained nearly four times as 
much tannin as the coffee. Tliese results leave no doubt that the tea 
we drink contains at least four or five times as much tannin as the 
coffee we drink. Also, that the tea yields only a small proportion 
of its large quantity of tannin at five to ten minutes' steeping. 
And in case of poisoning by alkaloids, strong tea is better than 
coffee as an antidote. 

As to the volatile oils. The essential oil of tea is a very small 
but a distinct constituent of good tea. The market value of good 
tea undoubtedly depends far more upon this volatile oil than upon 
all other constituents. Its presence is recognized and its propor- 
tions discerned by the expert, from the odor, when hot water is 
poured upon hot tea in a hot cup. This volatile oil is conjectured 
to be an organic stimulant. Coffee in the green state has no vola- 
tile oil. By the process of roasting an agreeable essential oil is 
developed, doubtless in part from the fat present. The effect of 
this essential oil on the Innnan system is not at all known. It 
may cause the digestive disturbance sometimes due to coffee- 
drinking. 

As to the food substances, tea contains pectin, gum, legumin, 
and other matters, yielding in all to boiling water, about thirty- 
two per cent, of its weight. Coffee contains after roasting one or 
two per cent, of glucose, ten to twelve per cent, of fat, nearly as 



178 COFFEE. 

miicli legumin, and a little gum. It yields twenty to twenty-five 
per cent, to water. It is likely that these food substances, as modi- 
fied by roasting, disagree with the digestion of many persons. 
This may be why substitution of tea-drinking sometimes gives 
relief to those suffering from drinking coffee. 

It is to be hoped that more of our chemists will give attention 
to this matter in the interests of economic science. As is well 
known, the quality of coffee improves by long keeping, and a 
chemical analysis of coffee beans of different ages might indicate 
the cause of the improvement, and possibly its production by ar- 
tificial means. 

Prof. Johnston states that, weight for weight, tea yields 
about twice as nmch tlieine as coffee does to the water in which 
it is infused, " but as we generally use a greater weight of coffee 
than we do of tea in preparing our beverages, a cup of coffee of 
ordinary strength will probably contain as much theine as a cup 
of ordinary English tea. One cup of strong French coffee will 
contain twice as much caffeine as a cup of weak French tea." 

The two subjoined analyses serve to show the comparative 
composition of the roasted berry and the tea-leaf. 

Tea. Coffee. 

(Mulder. ) (Payen. ) 

Water 5.0 12.0 

Gum and sugar 21.0 15.5 

Gluten 25.0 13.0 

Theine 0.5 0.75 

Fat and volatile oil 4.0 13.0 

Tannic acid 15.0 5.0 

Woody fibre 24.0 34.0 

Ash 5.5 6.11 

The above analyses must not be relied upon for any other 
purpose than that of a general comparison. It will be seen that 
the theine is much understated in the tea. 

Swallowed with the grounds, as is done in Turkey, coffee 
undoubtedly affords much nourishment. Mr. Payen states that 
it contains more than twice the nutriment of soup, and thiee 
times as much as tea. In the beverage, however, prepared as it 



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF COFFEE. 179 

is by ns, the nitrogenous or flesh-forming matter, being mostly 
insohible, remains in the dregs. Coffee slightly roasted contains 
the maximum of aroma, w^eight, and nutrition. 

It is said that in Germany a decoction of roasted acorns is 
often nsed as a " substitute " for coffee. Tlie acorns are gathered 
in autumn, when they are ripe, shelled, cut into pieces of the size 
of coffee-berries, and thoroughly dried. They are then roasted 
until they become of a cinnamon-brown color, ground, and 
treated as ordinary coffee-powder. It is pretended that this 
acorn coffee is "greatly liked by the people, and considered 
strengthening for consumptives and delicate children." I hope 
it is, for the sake of those who consume the beverage. As to 
being a substitute for coffee, it is only so in the sense in which 
anything becomes a substitute for another when put in its place. 
There is no more analogy between real coffee and this so-called 
acorn coffee than there is between a cigar made with tobacco- 
leaves and a cigar made with cabbage-leaves. The two latter, 
indeed, are put in the mouth and smoked in the same way, and 
so are the two former prepared and taken in the same way. But 
there the resemblance ends. For aught of common between the 
two substances, the acorn drink might as well be termed acorn 
tea, acorn chocolate, or acorn soup. It is fortunate that but little 
of such substances is used. The imports of acorn coffee and all 
other substitutes for coffee for the year ended June 30, 1879, 
amounted to only 5,012 pounds, and valued at $309. 

With regard to the evil effects charged to the abuse of coffee 
by some authorities, the " National Dispensatory" says : " The con- 
sequences of an abuse of tea were declared to be similar to that 
of coffee long before chemistry had demonstrated the identity of 
theine with caffeine. Among their evil effects were enumerated 
the following : indigestion, acidity, heartburn, watchfulness, tre- 
mors, debility, irritability of disposition, and dejection of spirits. 
By some persons both tea and coffee were accused of producing 
paralysis. Most of these effects are more likely to f6llow the 
habitual use of tea than of coffee, perhaps because, as a general 
rule, more of the former than of the latter is consumed ; and the 
spinal symptoms, such as painful muscular tension and cramp 
and persistent wakefulness, are more apt to be produced by tea. 



J80 COFFEE. 

In experiments undertaken witli a number of selected healthy 
persons, the operation of caffeine has been found to vary exceed- 
ingly ; by the same dose some were scarcely at all affected, while 
others suffered from palpitation of the heart, a full, frequent, 
or irregular pulse, irritable bladder, trembling limbs, headache, 
roaring in the ears, flashes before the eyes, sleeplessness, phan- 
tasms, a sort of intoxication, and even delirium, when a very large 
dose was taken, and a subsequent unfitness for bodily or mental 
labor." 

These effects, which may be called poisonous, illustrate the 
danger of exceeding due moderation in the use of coffee, for they 
show that it may, if immoderately consumed, tend to develop a 
morbid condition of the nervous system, which must render it 
peculiarly liable to disease, although in a much less degree than 
opium or alcohol. Indeed, the excessive usq of coffee is much 
more injurious to the spinal than to the cerebral functions. In 
its primary operation it agrees with those stimulants in exciting 
muscular and mental activity as well as cheerfulness, and in its 
after-effects it does not tend to produce narcotism or stupor, but 
only that unsteadiness of the mind, and still more of the spinal 
functions, which denotes exhaustion. It agrees with them, with 
tobacco, with Chinese and Paraguay teas, and with various other 
stimulants used by different nations, in the main features of its 

action The moderation of tissue-waste, which, it 

has been said, belongs to coffee in common with other articles 
having the same general action, and in use among different na- 
tions, is illustrated by various well-established facts. The inhab- 
itants of Central Africa, the native country of coffee, in their pred- 
atory excursions are said to subsist entirely upon a mixture of 
coffee and butter, which is prepared in masses of the size of a bil- 
liard-ball, one of which will keep a man in strength and spirits 
during a day's fatigue. Jomand says : " 120 grammes (4 ounces) 
of powdered coffee and 3 litres (8 pints) of an infusion made with 
200 grammes {Q^ ounces) of different kinds of coffee enabled me 
to live for five consecutive days without lessening my ordinary 
occupations, and to use more and more prolonged muscular ex- 
ercise than I was accustomed to without any other physical injury 
than a slight degree of fatigue and a little loss of flesh." The 



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF COFFEE. 181 

Belgian coal-miners live and work efficiently npon a ration of 
solid food much less than that of the French miners, and yet 
perform more labor than the latter. The only difference in the 
quality of their food consists in the Belgians i-eceiving a ra- 
tion of coffee, and to this is attributed their superior endurance. 
. . . . It may seem at first sight irrational that a substance 
which restricts tissue-waste should be used for the very purpose 
of quickening certain functions, and especially those of the brain. 

" It restricts tissue-waste, and yet it is used to quicken certain 
functions, especially those of the brain. The mental exhilara- 
tion, physical activity, and wakefulness it causes explains the 
. fondness for it which has been shown by so, many men of 
science, poets, scholars, and others devoted to thinking. It has, 
indeed, been called ' the intellectual beverage.' 

"But all of these occupations involve increased functional 
activity, and therefore increased waste of tissue in the brain and 
spinal marrow, the very action which coffee is said to restrain. To 
reconcile these apparent incongruities, it has been maintained that 
coffee does not act primarily as a cerebral stimulant, but only 
secondarily by removing the vascular plenitude occasioned by 
prolonged study, by a full meal, and especially by alcohol, opium, 
or other agents which directly tend to load the brain with blood ; 
that, if taken on an empty stomach, it does not quicken the func- 
tions of the brain, but, on the contrary, renders it dull and inapt 
for steady thought, creates general debility and nervousness, and 
frequently causes hetnicrania. 

" During digestion, however, the case is different, particularly 
if a full and stimulating meal has been taken ; the mind grows 
dull and sluggish, a tendency to sleep arises, and everything indi- 
cates an increased amount of blood in the brain. In like manner 
prolonged mental labor produces cerebral plenitude and drowsi- 
ness. It is this condition, apparently, which coffee corrects by 
contracting the blood-vessels and relieving the brain of its oppres- 
sive load of blood. The habit of taking coffee at breakfast and 
after dinner is explained by the stimulant action (whether direct 
or indirect) which it exerts not only upon the nervous system 
generally, but especially upon the stomach and bowels. There 
can be no doubt that it quickens gastric digestion and relieves the 



182 COFFEE. 

sense of plenitude in the stomach, stimulates the secretion of bile, 
and augments the peristaltic action of the intestine, thereby pro- 
moting defecation. It is quite as certain that, used to excess, 
it paralyzes the digestive function in all its steps, and leads to 
further disorders, of which the chief are congestion of the liver, 
constipation, and hemorrhoids. Whether these effects are to be 
ascribed to a power in coffee to produce contraction of the capil- 
lary blood-vessels may be uncertain, but their reality is beyond 
doubt." 

Dr. Guillasse, of the French navy, in a recent paper on typhoid 
fever, says : " Coffee has given us unhoped-for satisfaction ; and 
after having dispensed it we find, to our great surprise, that its 
action is as prompt as it is decisive. No sooner have our patients 
taken a few tablespoonf uls of it than their features become re- 
laxed and they come to their senses. The next day the improve- 
ment is such that we are tempted to look upon coffee as a specific 
against typhoid fever. Under its influence the stupor is dispelled 
and the patient rouses from the state of somnolency in which he 
has been since the invasion of the disease. Soon all the functions 
take their natural course, and he enters upon convalescence." 

Dr. Guillasse gives to an adult two or three tablespoonfuls of 
strong black coffee every two hours, alternately. with one or two 
teaspoonfuls of claret or Burgundy wine. A little lemonade or 
citrate of magnesia should be taken daily, and, after a while, 
quinine. From the fact that malaise or cerebral symptoms appear 
first, the doctor regards typhoid fever as a nervous disease, and 
the coffee acting on the nerves is peculiarly indicated in the early 
stages before local complications arise. 

For a fuller description of its medicinal properties we refer 
the reader to the interesting article on Coft'osa Arabica, to be 
found in the "National Dispensatory." 



CHAPTER xxni. 

THE COFFEE TRADE. 

Between the producers and consumers of coffee stands the 
trade which handles tlie article, taking it from the former and 
distributing it to the latter. The statistical data which are pre- 
sented in other chapters sufficiently illustrate the importance of 
this branch of the commerce of the world — the coffee crop — which 
amounts in round numbers to eleven hundred million pounds, 
being worth from first hands not less than $135,000,000. 

Coffee as a commercial staple is naturally inseparable from 
coffee as a popular beverage. Increased consumption at the 
breakfast-table leads to higher prices in the market, which in turn 
must stimulate production in the field. This extended production 
reacts on the value of the commodity and brings it again to a 
more accessible level, whtn, as experience has shown, consumption 
resumes its onward march and the rotation of cause and effect 
begins anew. But this general law of supply and demand, so 
easily stated, is in reality very complex in its workings. Conse- 
quences often apparently belie premises, or are so long postponed 
as meanwhile to puzzle or to injure. 

Amsterdam was for many years the centre of the coffee trade, 
and it will not be amiss to study the earlier fluctuations of coffee in 
that market. One of the effects of the great European wars at 
the beginning of this century was to so entirely shut out the supply 
of coffee from the Continent that the price was forced up to almost 
fabulous figures. In Amsterdam, good ordinary Java sold in 1810 
at from 105 to 115 Dutch cents* (about 42 to 46 cents, gold, in 

* In all that pertains to the Amsterdam market, the cents are the Dutch 
cents, unless otherwise specified. Two and one-half Dutch cents are about 
equivalent to one American cent. 



184 COFFEE. 

United States money) per pound; in 1811 for 215 cents (86 cents, 
U. S.) per pound ; and in 1812 for 270 cents, or about $1.08 of 
our money, per pound. Meanwhile, stocks accumulated in Eng- 
land. After the fall of the French empire and the return of ^ 
peace, a rapid distribution took place. From 1814 to 1817, prices 
ranged in Holland fi-om 40 to 50 cents per pound in Netherlands 
currency, representing a very moderate value — from 16 to 20 cents 
of our money per pound. But the impetus given caused consump- 
tion to run ahead of production. The supply could not keep pace 
with the requirements, and Java coffee rose again to 92|^ cents 
or 37 cents, U. S. In 1823 it still brought 75^ cents in the 
Amsterdam market (30 cents, U. S.). But the natural conse- 
quences of this long period of high prices began at this time to 
make themselves felt. For more than ten years coffee had been 
yielding enormous profits ; under this powerful stimulus, the cul- 
ture had taken a sudden and immense development. Xew plan- 
tations had been opened everywhere. The product of the mil- 
lions of young trees now commenced pouring into the European 
markets. Production not only overtook the still increasing con- 
sumption, but, like the famous dog in headlong chase after the 
fox, it kept steadily ahead and gained more and more. Prices 
for good ordinary Java coffee in Holland tumbled to 37^ cents in 
1825, and to 21 cents (a fraction ovqj' 8 cents, U. S.) in 1830. 
There they seemed to " touch bottom " for a while and rallied to 
36 cents (14f cents, U. S.) in 1835, and after a plunge to 23 
cents (9| cents, U. S.) during the great crisis of 1837, floated up 
to 33 cents (13^ cents, U. S.) in 1839. 

The cheapness of coffee during these years no doubt con- 
tributed powerfully to the spread of its use among a numerous 
class of consumers to whom it had hitherto been denied. This 
era of popularizing the article, at the expense of the trade and of 
the producer, had not yet come to an end ; darker days were yet 
in store for the coffee-grower. 

Toward 1840 the yield of Java attained unprecedented pro- 
portions (68,414 tons in 1840), while, from the "Western hemi- 
sphere, Brazil began to ship enormous crops, amounting in that 
year to more than 76,000 tons. Consumption could not keep 
pace. So low did prices fall that the Dutch Trading Maats- 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 185 

chappy, a monopoly formed in 1824 for the collection, shipment 
to Holland, and sale of all the coffee that the government pro- 
duced, was compelled in 1843 to fix 20 cents (8 cents, U. S.) as a 
minimum price for good ordinary Java, below which it advertised 
it would permit no sales. The measures devised by the company 
worked only temporary good. The mininmm was raised to 22^ 
cents (9 cents, U. S.) in ISi-l, and, under a speculative combination 
formed by the Dutch merchants, prices advanced to 26 @ 27 cents 
for a while (lOy^^ @ lOj^g- cents, U. S.), only to collapse in 1845, 
with disastrous effect to those concerned. In 18^6 the adoption 
of a minimum of 20 cents was again resorted to, which, in 1848, 
the Maatschappy was obliged to lower to 18 cents (7^ cents, XJ. S.), 
while forced sales out of private hands were made at 16 @ 17 
cents (6f @ 6f cents, U. S.). This was far below the cost of pro- 
duction and handling. By this time the decline of the coffee 
industry in the West Indies became clearly visible. The neglected 
plantations went out of bearing, and coffee-production ceased al- 
most entirely in that part of the world. A fitful reaction advanced 
prices one hundred per cent, from 1849 to 1850, but in subsequent 
years we find the appreciation of the staple struggling up through 
such quotations as 25|^ cents (10^ cents, U. S.) in 1851 ; 23 cents 
(9| cents, U. S.) in 1852 ; 33|- cents (13f cents, U. S.) in 1853 ; 
291 cents (llf cents, U. S.) in 1854; 34 cents (13f cents, U. S.) 
in 1855 and 1856 (notwithstanding the importation in 1856 by the 
Maatschappy of 1,278,873 bags — the largest quantity ever im- 
ported, exceeding the average yearly supply by 300,000 bags) ; 40 
cents (16 cents, TJ. S.) in the spring of 1857 ; 20 cents (8 cents, 
U. S.) and 22 cents (8| cents, IT. S.) at the end of that critical 
year; 34 cents (13| cents, U. S.) in 1858; 38|- cents (15| cents, 
U. S.) in 1859 and 1860 ; to 44 cents (17| cents, U. S.) and 46^ 
cents (18|- cents, U. S.) in 1861. 

Then occurrred the great civil war in the United States, which, 
it is calculated, " diminished the consumption about two hundred 
thousand tons." A well-informed authority in coffee matters, 
writing about ten years ago, observes that but for that important 
event "the equilibrium between production and consumption 
would have been disturbed." It is urged that the continual en- 
couragement afforded to consumption by low prices during so 



186 COFFEE. 

many years and the parallel discouragement of production had 
now reversed the position. The dispirited dog was now lapsing 
behind the game. Java, which in 1855 produced T6,596 tons 
(the largest crop ever known), barely kept up to previous averages, 
while consumption was still on a rapid increase. Brazil, it is true, 
had suffered no interruption to the development of her coffee cul- 
ture, having had the good fortune of ministering to the growing 
wants of our prosperous republic ; but the fast-swelling millions 
of this country would have continued to absorb any increase of 
her product. " The. world would not," says the same authority, 
"have had coffee enough. The American war prevented this 
deficiency, which, without the large Brazil crop of 1866, would 
have been enormous." I am not prepared either to support or 
combat the foregoing opinion. The question is a complex and, 
at best, a theoretical one, requiring more study than it has been 
in my power to bestow upon it. I have merely stated this view 
of the matter as one in the light of which it may be curious to 
consider subsequent events in our coffee market and in Europe. 

Our record of prices for the jSTew York market opens with the 
year succeeding the financial panic of 1857. 

— 1858 — 

During this year the prices of coffee other than Java ruled 
lower than for several previous years. The average cost of fair 
to prime Rio in 1857 was 11.01 cents, and in 1858, 10.96 cents. 
The fluctuations in Brazil were between 9^ @ lOf cents, and lOf 
@ 12 cents, for fair to prime ; St. Domingo, 7f @ 10 cents ; 
Maracaibo and Lagnayra, lOJ @ 11 cents. The changes in Java 
were more marked, the lowest price being 13|^ cents ; the highest, 
20 cents. At the opening of the year Java sold at 15|^ @ 16| 
cents, reached 20 cents in March, and declined in ISTovember to 
13^ @ 14 cents — the low prices stimulating speculation. 

— 1859 — 

The market for all grades was remarkably steady, the prices 
of Java being confined within a variation of 2^ cents ; Brazil, f @ 
1 cent ; St. Domingo, 2i @ 2^ cents ; and Maracaibo, 1| cent. 
Higher prices were obtained for Brazil coffee in November and 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 187 

December of 1859 than at any time for nine years previous. 
Large sales of Rio were made late in the summer for export to 
Germany, an event of peculiar significance at that time. 

— 1860 — 

In this year tliere was a decrease of 46,352,227 pounds in the 
consumption, and yet prices reached a point for the principal 
kinds higher than any previously on record. The supply was 
short, the Brazil crop being deficient. The average cost of Brazil 
in 1860 was 13. 69^ cents for fair to prime, against 11.61 cents in 
1859, an advance of 18 per cent. ; St. Domingo advanced from an 
average of 10.39 cents in 1859 to 12.39^ cents in 1860, an increase 
of 19'^- per cent. ; Maracaibo and Laguayra ruled nearly 16f per 
cent, higher ; while Java averaged 16.15^ cents, or 1.36^ cents 
above the average for 1859. 

— 1861 — 

At this time the country was troubled with civil war. The 
blockade of the Southern ports increased the receipts in New 
York, where the sales showed an increase over the previous year 
of 55 per cent. In the spring of 1861, at the time Fort Sumter 
was bombarded, business becamie depressed and prices declined. 
In July a duty of five cents per pound was proposed, and this gave 
life to the market, which became excited. In August, Congress 
placed the duty at four cents per pound, this action advancing 
prices and leading to large speculative transactions. Xear the close 
of the year an additional duty of one cent per pound was levied, 
and made to cover coffee in bond. On January 1, 1861, fair to 
prime Brazil sold at 11^ @ 12^ cents, and in December at 18J @ 
19^ cents, out of bond. Java advanced from 15^ @ 16^ cents 
in January, to 21 @ 25 cents in December. 

— 1862 — 

In 1862 the effects of the war became more apparent, coffee 
being shut out of the Southern States. The consumption fell off 
98,055,875 pounds, or 52.42 per cent. ; prices ruled very much 
higher, those for Brazil being 64J per cent, beyond those for 
1861. During this year the use of substitutes began, and all 



188 COFFEE. 

manner of mixtures were sold with liigli-sonnding names, and, 
strange to say, often bearing an endorsement from persons pos- 
sessed of a national reputation. 

The trade varied greatly during the year, being dull when 
news of defeat came to the Union armies, and active when a vic- 
tor}'^ was chronicled. Brazil sold at 11^ @ 18|^ cents in January, 
reaching its highest point, 31 @ 33 cents, in November — averag- 
ing 23 cents for the year, against 14 cents in 1861. Java 
sold up to 34 @ 35 cents, an advance from the lowest point 
of 9 @ 9^ cents. 

— 1863 — 

High prices led to a decrease in consumption, which was 
about 35,600 tons, as against an average of 89,600 tons foi* the ten 
years prior to 1861. The receipts were nearly 4,500,000 pounds 
lighter than the consumption. During this year prices varied as 
gold fluctuated in value. The average cost of Brazil was 31.18 
cents, or 8.17 cents above that of the previous year. Java was 
worth 41 cents at the close of the year, its average cost being 
37.04 cents per poand, an advance over 1862 of 9.54 cents. 

— 1864 — 

The consumption increased 36.84 per cent,, the Government 
being a purchaser to the extent of 40,000,000 pounds. The mar- 
ket for most of the year was excited and irregular. At the be- 
ginning of January Eio sold for 22f cents, gold, or 34^ @ 34^ 
cents, currency. In July gold sold at 285, making the currency 
value of the same grade 53 cents, while its gold price was 18f 
cents. Six months later the currency quotation was 45 @ 45^ 
cents, or 19|f cents in gold, then selling at 227. 

These wide fluctuations in price show to what great disadvan- 
tage dealers operated. In August, Java sold at 58 @ 60 cents, 
the lowest pi-ices being made in January, when the market ruled 
steady at 40 @ 41 cents ; averaging for tlie year 49 cents. The 
average currency cost of Maracaibo and Laguayra was 41,59 cents, 
against 31,93 cents m 1863. 

-1865 — 

The consumption exceeded that of the previous year 19,059,653 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 189 

pounds, or nearly 17^ per cent,, due to the renewal of trade with the 
Southern States. It will be noted, by reference to the table of 
receipts of Java, that in 186-1 they were unusually heavy, reach- 
ing 0,381,908 pounds at New York, while in 1805 only 178,000 
pounds were received. On January 1, 1865, there was a stock 
in Boston and New York of nearly 118,000 mats of Java coffee. 
Prices were more uniform, and the trade transacted business upon 
a gold basis, so that from June, 1805, quotations are given in gold. 
The average cost of Eio was 20.05 cents, gold; Maracaibo, 21.3 
cents, gold ; Java, 25.82 cents, gold. 

— 1866 — 

. The record for this year shows an advance of 23^ per cent, in 
consumption, but notwithstanding the increase the distribution 
still fell far behind that of the years preceding the war. 

The average cost of all kinds, except Java, was below that of 
1865, the average of Brazil for the year being 18.06 cents, gold, 
against 20.05 cents in 1805; St. Domingo, 17.12 cents, against 
18.78 cents ; Maracaibo, 19.45 cents, against 21.3 cents ; Java, 
26.08 cents, against 25.82 cents. 

— 1867 — 

Consumption continued to increase, and for this year exhibited 
a gain of 27^ per cent., being the largest reported since 1859 ; 
the deliveries at New York were 132,335,511 pounds. For the 
country, exclusive of the Pacific Coast, the consumption was 203,- 
506,671 pounds, a gain over 1866 of 43,587,790 pounds. Prices 
ruled lower, the average cost of fair to prime Hio being 17.24 
cents, or 1.42 cent below the average price in 1866 : Maracaibo 
averaged 17.69 cents, or 1.76 cent less than for the previous year: 
Java averaged 24.75 cents, against 26.08 cents in 1866. 

— 1868 — 

Lower prices prevailed, thereby stimulating consumption. 
The year's business was not very profitable to importers, but the 
deliveries were almost as large as in the days of free coffee. The 
average price of Brazil for the year was 15.73 cents, or 1^ cent 
below that of 1867 ; St. Domingo, 14.58 cents, or 1^ cent lower ; 
Maracaibo, 16.38 cents, or 1-^ cent less, Java selling at a decline 



190 COFFEE. 

of 1^ cent ; the average for tlie year being 23.41 cents, against 
24.75 cents in 1867. 

— 1869 — 

The receipts were, 4,149,313 pounds more than in 1868, while 
the consumption increased 19,792,317 pounds, which led to a 
reduction in the stock, which was on December 31st, 16,717,682 
pounds below the quantity held at the beginning of the year. In 
the spring of 1869 a large speculative business was done in Java, 
the transactions amounting to 100,000 mats, and absorbing all the 
stock on the spot, together with that to arrive. The highest price 
for the year was in June, when Java sold at 23 J @ 25 cents, the 
lowest in April, when it brought 21 @ 23 cents, the average 
for the year being 23.02. The average cost of Brazil, was 15.82 ; 
Maracaibo, 17.54. 

— 1870 — 

The imports for the year were the largest on record, as also 
was the consumption, which was 37,470,555 pounds larger than 
that of 1869, equal to a gain of 15f per cent. 

The market during this year was less disturbed by fluctuations 
than it had been for many previous years. Brazil averaged 16.33 
cents, a higher price than had ruled since 1867 ; Java averaged 
21.19 cents, against 23.02 cents in 187t), a decline of 1.83 cent. 

— 1871 — 

During this year the receipts and consumption were again in- 
creased, being heavier than for any previous year. The duty was 
reduced two cents per pound, and yet there was a decline in the 
average cost of Brazil of less than half a cent ; Maracaibo, was 1 J 
cent lower; Java, j\ cent higher in comparison with 1870, when 
Java coffee sold at lower prices than for several years previous. 
In August of that year it became certain that the Brazil and Java 
crops were short, and a very active trade was done, especially in 
Java, of which 100,000 mats were sold. The deliveries of Java 
fell, in 1871, 540,000 piculs below 1870, the Sumatra crop of 
1872 was 65,700 piculs below that of 1871, and Brazil exported, 
in 1872, 425,000 bags less than in 1871. In September the 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 191 

activity continued, and during October there was much excite- 
ment, wide fluctuations marking speculative operations. In 
August, Brazil sold at 14^ @ 15| cents, and in October, at 19 
@ 20^ cents ; Java advanced from 12| @ 13 cents, in August, to 
16^ @ 16^ cents during the latter part of December. 

— 1872 — 

The decline in the receipts from 322,700,479 pounds in 1871, 
to 277,636,258 pounds in 1872, was due to a short crop in the 
Brazils, from whence the bulk of supplies came, and to the failure 
of the Java crop. On July 1st, the remaining duty of three 
cents was removed, and yet the average gold price of fair to prime 
Rio was 2^ cents above that of 1871 ; Maracaibo and Laguayra, 
averaged nearly 2 cents higher, while Java was 21.3 cents, 
as against 21.29 cents the year preceding, the lowest price being 
made in November, when it sold at 18i| @ 19t^- cents ; the highest 
in January, when it was held at 23 @ 25 cents. 

— 1873 — 

The effect of the short crops was seen during this year in 
the marked advance in prices. Brazil, Java, Ceylon, and West 
India countries were short in their supply, the exports from Bio 
falling over 51,000 tons below those of 1872, while the Sumatra 
crop, which was very short in 1872, was in 1873, 46,380 piculs 
below the average per year for the five years from and including 
1867 to 1871. 

The highest price of Brazil sorts was reached in September, 
when fair to prime sold at 21f @ 23 cents, averaging for the year 
19,99 cents, against 18.42 cents in 1872 ; Java sold during the 
same month at 25^ @ 27 cents, and in December, at 30 @ 34 
cents, an advance over the price on January 1st of 11 @ 13 cents 
per pound. The average price of Java for the year was 23.63 
cents, against 21.3 cents in 1872. 

— 1874 — 

This year was marked by large speculative transactions, ac- 
companied by wide fluctuations in price. The growth of con- 
sumption in Europe and America, light stocks and diminished 



192 COFFEE. 

crops led to a great advance on the Continent of Europe, as well 
as in the New York market. The reign of higli prices, however, 
was short, and the decline was hastened by reports of a large crop 
in Brazil, at that time placed at 212,000 to 220,000 tons, against 
a yield of 155,000 to 160,000 tons in 1873-71:; it reached over 
235,000 tons. The Java crop was 125,000 to 130,000 piculs in 
excess of the previous year, while Ceylon was expected to exceed 
1873-74, by nearly 50 per cent., or 300,000 cwt. The year opened 
with fair to prime Brazil cargoes held at 25 @ 27 cents, advancing 
three weeks later to 20;^ @ 28J cents. In June, the same grades 
sold at 17 @ 19^ cents ; September, 15f @ 19 cents, the average 
cost for the year being 21.08 cents, against 19.99 cents in 1873. 
Java sold on January 1st, at 31 @ 35 cents, dropped to 22 @ 
25 cents in June, then advanced, selling at 21: @ 28 cents during 
[November and December, averaging for the year 26.68 cents. 
With a declining market from the beginning of the year, and 
a variation in price of 8 to 10 cents per pound, importers and 
dealers sustained considerable loss, and the year closed with a bad 
record so far as profits were concerned, 

— 1875 — 

In 1875, the imports increased greatly, showing a gain of 2G/o- 
per cent., while the consumption increased only 8|| per cent. The 
result was that the year closed with a heavy stock, viz., 21,161 
tons, against 2,705 tons December 31, 1871. Prices averaged 
2.07 cents per pound lower on Brazil, being 19.01 cents, against 
21.08 cents in 1874. Fluctuations in Java were confined to a 
difference of 3 @ 4 cents, the average for the year being 26.71 
cents, against 26.68 cents in 1874, or only 3 cents per 100 pounds 
higher than the average of the previous year. It will be noted 
that fi-ee coffee brought no benefit to consumers, who paid higher 
prices from the time the duty was removed. 

— 1876 — 

The record of this year contains many features of interest. 
The receipts fell off 85,869,661 pounds, or 38,335 tons. The con- 
sumption exceeded the imports 34,738,078 pounds, while the 
stock at the close of the year was reduced to only 1,795 tons, a 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 193 

quantity smaller than was ever held at the san\e date within a 
quarter of a century. With increased consumption, diminished 
supplies, and a reduced stock, prices would ordinarily seek a higher 
level, but the facts are that they ruled lower than in 1875, the 
average cost of Brazil sorts being 17.97 cents, against 19.01 cents 
in 1875 ; Maracaibo sold at an average of 17.02 cents, or 3,52 
cents lower than in 1875, Java declining 5.14 cents. Early in 
the year mild coffee sold at higher prices than at any other time 
in 1876, all kinds declining in mid-summer, advancing as the 
year drew to a close, the Brazil sorts reaching their highest point 
in December, when fair to prime sold at 19 @ 20 cents, against 
an average for the year of 17.97 cents. Mild sorts did not quite 
recover the decline. The market during most of the year was 
irregular and unsettled. 

— 1877 — 

Notwithstanding that the general trade of the country was 
greatly depressed throughout the year, and prices higher than in 
1876, there was a small advance in consumption. With the excep- 
tion of one year the imports were the largest in the history of the 
trade. The average price of Brazil during the year exceeded that 
of 1876 by 1.75 cents ; Maracaibo ruled 1.9 cents higher, while 
the average cost of Java was 2J cents above the year previous. 
The fluctuations were wider, Java selling at 22 @ 23 cents in 
December, and up to 24|- @ 25| cents in July, at which time Brazil 
sold at 19f @ 20| cents, against 17-^ @ 19 cents in November. 
The receipts were with one exception the largest on record, reach- 
ing a total of 341,214,438 pounds. The consumption was larger 
than in 1876, and was larger with two exceptions than for any 
previous years. Prices fluctuated considerably, being lowest 
toward the close of December. 

— 1878 — 

This year marked a new era in the coffee trade, not only in 
this country, but wlierever the article was produced or consumed. 
Then it was that the large crops made it apparent that the time, 
previously predicted, when the production would exceed consump- 
tion had come, and that the control of the existing speculative 
13 



194 COFFEE. 

syndicate would soon terminate. During tlie year prices of all 
varieties declined, and with the exception of Java, ruled lower 
tlian in January. Prime cargoes of Brazil declined from 18| to 
15f cents, the average price for the year being about 3J cents 
below that of 1877 ; Maracaibo declined 3f cents, and St. Do- 
mingo, 3-| cents, while the average yearly cost of Java was 1-| 
cent less. In January, Java sold at 21 @ 23 cents, declining 
in April to 20|- @ 21| cents, and ruling at 23 @ 23| cents in 
December. There was an advance during the year of 6,466 tons 
in consumption, while the receipts fell 5,297 tons below those of 
the previous year. 

— 1879 — 

The course of prices in 1879 was downward, excepting for 
Java. There was a great gain, both in the receipts and consump- 
tion on the Atlantic Coast, the former advancing 50,980 tons, and 
the latter, 36,869 tons, the stock being 11,163 tons heavier on 
December 31, 1879, than at the corresponding date 1878. 
During this year Europe made an advance in consumption, and 
yet prices fell. During the fall of 1879, however, in New York, 
the coffee syndicate made another effort to advance prices, and 
this was greatly aided by the general improvement in business. 
Fair Rio coffee, advanced from 13^ cents in September, to 17 cents 
in November, Maracaibo gained 3 cents in price within two 
months, and St. Domingo went from 10^ to 14 cents during the 
same time. So rapid was the increase in the demand for merchan- 
dise that prices of all kinds were greatly advanced, legitimate 
trade being for a time supplanted by speculative operations. The 
great advance during the last two months of 1879 checked trade, 
as dealers generally believed that the large crops produced in 
Brazil and the East Indies, in connection with the stimulus given 
to production in Mexico and Central America, warranted lower 
prices for coffee. 

— 1880 — 

This year was one of reaction, and the history of the trade for 
the twelve months is a record of loss and disaster such as never 
was experienced before in the coffee trade in the United States. 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 196 

Considering tlie large supplies, prices ruled high in January, 1880, 
fair to prime Kio selling at 15^ @ 17 cents ; Maracaibo, 13^ @ 
17 cents; Padang Java, 22 @ 24 cents. 

The deliveries in the early part of the year were large, but 
during the spring and summer months they were comparatively 
light. During the summer there was an attempt made by heavy 
holders of East India coffee to control the supply of Brazil on the 
spot, and to arrive, and their free purchases carried the price of 
fair E.io, which, under the influence of a dull spring trade, had 
dropped to 14^ cents, up to IGj^ cents, and loaded them with a 
heavy stock. Large receipts in Rio de Janeiro, however, and the 
general statistical position, made buyers timid ; the combina- 
tion being unable to sustain the market, prices declined rapidly, 
and they soon found themselves owners of an immense stock of 
Java and Brazil coffee that showed a loss of from three to five 
cents per pound. The enormous shrinkage caused the failure of 
the two largest coffee firms in America, and the sudden death of 
a leading member of the combination threw affairs into confu- 
sion, and thus led to the breaking up of the three largest coffee 
houses in the United States. The loss sustained by the trade in 
ISTew York and Boston, between July, 1880, and January, 1881, is 
estimated at between $5,000,000 and $7,000,000. 



— 1881 — 

At the commencement of 1881 there was a stock at x\tlantic 
coast ports of 19,353 tons, and when the holdings are compared 
with the stock held at the beginning of 1880, it will be noted that 
on January 1, 1881, there were 95,429 bags of Brazil held at 
]^ew York, against 223,249 bags on the 1st of January, 1880, a 
difference of 127,820 bags ; while of Java and Singapore there 
were 169,639 mats, or 133,363 mats more than were held at the 
beginning of 1880. When prices are compared, it will be seen 
that during 1880 there was a greater decline in the price of mild 
coffee than in that of Brazil sorts, and this led to an increased de- 
mand for Central American, Mexican, and Venezuela, as well as 
low grade East India coffee, of which there was an unusually large 
stock — the largest, in fact, that this market ever carried of grades 



196 



COFFEE. 



termed low grade Java. The comparative cost of the different 
sorts on the 1st of January, 1880 and 1881, and on the 1st. of 
May in each of the two years, is shown by the following table : 



Jan. 1, 
1880. 



Java, Gov't bags 23 
Java, Grass mats 24 



Singapore 

Ceylon 

Maracaibo... , 
Laguayra. . . . 

Jamaica 

Costa Rica . . 
St. Domingo. 
Mexican .... 

Rio— fair 

Rio — prime.. 



17 
16 
14 
14 

14 

13 
15i 



@24 14i 
@ 2H 15 



Jan. 1, 
1881. 



@20 
@19 
@19 

®mn 

@]6 10 
@18 12 
@15 10 
@17i 12 

15i 

16i 



@16 
@20 
@15 
@18 
@13 
@13 
@12 
@16 
@11 
@13 
13 
14 



Decline. 



8i@ 
9 @ 
3 @ 
5 @ 
3 @ 

3 @ 

4 @ 
3i@ 
3 @ 
3i@ 



May 1, 

1880. 



8 21 
5|23 



14 
15 
13 

13i 
13 
13 
12 
4il4 
2-.V 144 
2|,15| 



May 1, 
1881. 



@22 
@24 
@16 
@17 
@17 

@m\ 

@16 

@18 

@14 

@16 ' 

@14f 

@15f 



14i@16 
14i @ 20 
12 @14 
@13 
@13 
@14 
@12^- 
@15 
9i^@ll 
12 @13 
lli@lli 
12i @ 12i 



Decline. 



@ 6 

@ 4 
@ 3 
@ 4 
@ 4 
@ f 
@ 3i 
@ 3 
@ 3 
@ 3 
3i 
3i 



In the European markets prices show the same marked dis- 
parity, supplies accumulating in spite of low prices. In London 
the comparative prices on May 1st were as follows : 



London Coffee Quotations. 



Floating Cargoes. 



1880. 



s. d. s. d. 

Rio — Low superior |6.5 @ 66 

Rio good first |63 6 @ 64 6 

Channel good first [61 6 @ 63 6 

Good Channel '59 6 @ 60 6 

Pair Channel |57 6 @ 58 6 

Low fair Channel |55 @ 56 6 



Low and irregular. 

Santos — Good average. 

Fair average 



52 (S 53 
616(a) C'3 6 
60 @ 61 



Washed Brazil — Good to fine. 

Medium colory 

Grayish 

Bahia — Ordinary mixed (S) . . 

Fair ditto 

Good greenish 

Ceylon — Plantation low mid . 

Good ordinary 



Hollar! d — Java, good ordin'y. cents. 

New York — good cargoes cents. 

Hamburg — real ordinary pfeng. 



46 @ 47 
48 @ 49 
53 @ 55 



39K 
15K 
62 



1881. 



s. d. 
55 
53 
50 
46 
43 
37 
35 
50 
48 



s. d. 
@56 
(a) 54 
@51 
@48 
@44 
@40 
@ 36 
(0)51 
@49 



Ex Quay. 



1880. 



©1 



36 @ 37 
40 @ 41 
42 (a 44 



8. d. 

(67 0(a) 

I 65 6 @ 
64 0@ 
61 6(a) 

-^ 57 6 @ 
54 @ 
50 0^ 

I 61 Co) 

l59 era) 



s. d. 
67 6 



1881. 



58 



66 6 55 
64 6 52 



63 

59 6 
56 
52 
62 6 

60 6 



36 

12V 
47 



r840@860 
75 @ 80 
70 @ 73 
47 @ 49 
50 @ 51 
55 @ 59 
89 @ 89 6 

1 63 0@ 64 



d. B. d. 
@ 59 
@ 56 
@ 54 
0@480 
@ 45 
0@S90 
@ 36 6 
0@520 
@ 51 



67 @ 70 
61 @ 63 
57 @ 60 
34 @ 36 
410@430 
46 @ 48 
19 (a 81 
55 ((^ 57 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 



197 



The consumption has, however, very naturally increased under 
the stimulus of low prices. The average monthly consumption 
for the first four months of the years 1879, 1880, and 1881, was 
13,805 tons for the Atlantic coast, against an average per month 
for the first four months of 1881, of 15,217 tons, an increase over 
the corresponding time in 1880 of 2,821 tons. At London an 
increase was reported of 344 tons for the first four months of 
1881 over the same time 1880. Still it is apparent that the supply 
of coffee is increasing in a faster ratio than consumption, and this 
is not likely to be disturbed for some years unless some great calam- 
ity overtakes the crop, while if a disaster should come to some one 
of the great consuming countries similar to the war that occurred 
in this country from 1861 to 1865, prices would reach an unusu- 
ally low level. 

We here present the range of prices for the year 1880, as 
taken from the report of the Chamber of Commerce, which shows 
at a glance the great decline that occurred between January and 
December. The average prices for the month and for the year 
were per 100 pounds. 



Brazil — Fair to Prime Cargoes. 





1st. 


10th. 


20th. 


Averages for the month. 




1S80. 


1879. 


1878. 


January 

February 

]\Iarch 


15* @ 161 
14f @ 151 
15^ @ 16^ 
14| @ 16 
14| @ 15f 
14i @ 15i 
15 @ 16 
15 @ 16 
151 @ 17 
14i @ 16 
13i @ 15 
13 @14 


15f @ 17 
14| @ 15f 
15 @ 16i 


15i ®. 16i 
15i @ 16^ 
145- (Ttt 15# 


$16,161 
15.50 
15.63J 
15.00 
15.08i 
15.04 
15.50 
15.83 
16.101 
14.46 
13.96 
13.13 


$15.43 

14.79,'; 

14.161 
14.30,i 

Vi.m 

13.75 

14.00 

14.04 

14.70 

16.33 

16.91 

16.37i 

$14.85i 


$17.87 
17.08 
16.54 


April 


14i @ 15f 14 @ 15 
14i @ 15i' 14i @ \U 
14i ©. 1.5^; 141 @ 151 

15 @ 16 14f @ 15f 
15i @ 16i! 15| @ 16f 

16 @ 17 |15 @16i 
13i @ 14^' 13^ @ 131 
13i @ 14ii 13i @ 14i 
111® 13 113 @ 14 


16.37 


May 


17.00 


June 


16.30 


July 


16.13 


August 


16.70 


September 

October 


17.16 
16.50 


November 

December 


15.54 
15.04 


Average f oi 


" the year. . 




$15.13 


$16.51 







198 



COFFEE. 



Java — {Padang. ) 



1880. 



January. . . 
February. . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August. . . . 
September 
October. . . 
November. 
December. 



1st. 



231 

23| 

23 

22 

22 

20 

\n 

21 
21 
21 
20 
18 



@ 22 

@22 
@2-3 
@22 
@22 
@22 
@22 
@22 
@ 22 
@22 
@22 
@22 



10th. 



20th. 



23f @ 
23|@ 
23 @ 
22 @ 
21 @ 

20 @ 
19i@ 

21 @ 
21 @ 
21 @ 
20 @ 
18 @ 



23f 

28 

23 

22 

20 

19* 

21 

21 

21 

29 

28 

26 



24 
24 
24 
23 
22 
21 
22 
23 
23 
23 
20 
18 



Averaere for the month. 
1880. 1879. 1878. 



$23.87i 
23.75 
23.50 
22.50 
21.G6f 
20.75 
20.601- 
21.83i 
22.00 
21.661 
20. 33 J 
18.33i 



Average for the year i|22.62-,^5; 



^23.25 
24.25 
23.91 2^ 
24.25 
24.25 
24.25 
24.25 
24.00 
23.58 
24.50 
24.79 
24.371 



$24.14 



$22.16 
21.50 
21.16 
21.00 
21.25 
21.66 
22.50 
24.00 
24.37 
23.58 
23.37 
23.25 



$22.48 



Maracaibo OMd Laguayra. 



1880. 



January. . . 
February. . 

March 

April 

May 

June. 

July 

August. . . . 
September 
October. . . 
November. 
December. 



iBt. 



13i 

14i 

15 

15 

14 

14 

13i 

14 

14i 

13 

13i- 

12i 



17 

18i 

18i 

17 

17 

16i 

17 

17i 

17 

15 



10th. 



14 @ 16i 
14i @ 17 

15 @ 18i- 
15 @ 18i 
14 @ 17 
12f @ 16 
13i @ 16i 
14 @ 17 
\^ @ 17i 
14 @ 17 
131 @ 15 



13^1111 @ 13 



20th. 



Average for the year. 



14i @ 17 
15 @ 18i 
15 @18i- 
15 @ 18i 
14 @ 17 
12f @ 16 
14 @ 16i 
14i @ 17i 
141 @ 17i 
13i @ 15 
13 @ 141 
Hi @ 13 



Average for the month. 



1880. 



$15.33J 
16.04 
16.621 
16.62* 
15.00 
14.75 
14.95^ 
15.621 
15 871 
15.04 
14.00 
12.451 

$15.52f2 



1879. 187 



$15.17 
15.58J- 
14.6(iJ 
14.00 
14.00 
13.91 
18.75 
13.75 
13.75 
15.08 
16.58 
16.21 



$14.70 



$17.25 
16.33 
15.75 
15.50 
15.33 
15.50 
15.33 
14.91 
15.25 
15.50 
14.75 
14.83 



$15.52 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 



199 



The consumption of the country, according to Moriiig's tables, 
was 10,84:7 tons below that of 1879, but 28,277 tons above the 
average for the ten years 1871-80, and 5,291 tons above the ave- 
rage for the three years 1878-80, thus showing that the demand 
was comparatively steady. 

The deliveries of Rio and Santos coffee in the United States 
from January 1st to December 31st, during the years 1878, 1879, 
1880 and 1881 to August 1st, were as follows : 

Deliveries of liio and Santos Coffee in the United States from 
January \st to Deceviber 31s^. 



January . . 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August . . . 
September 
October. . . 
November 
December 

Total. 



195,879 
181,604 
230,565 
161,859 
189,665 
206,227 
137,582 



1,303,421 



1880. 
Bags. 



201,901 

198,157 
170,193 
107,292 
110,310 
142,178 
100,287 
189,075 
135.495 
248,773 
233,040 
240,420 



2,203,733 



istg. 

Bags. 



172,119 
199,557 
205,029 
202,186 
150,242 
157,441 
185,981 
177;757 
220,053 
236,989 
106,836 
158,212 



2,243,002 



1878. 
Bags. 



146,818 
106,516 
104,404 
122,513 
182,347 
115,504 
137,389 
149,124 
130,004 
188,883 
180,217 
211,838 



1,908,157 



The consumption on the Pacific Coast was about 6,100 tons, 
against 4,400 tons in 1879, and 5,400 tons in 1878. The receipts 
on that coast in 1880 from Central America reached 137,568 
bags, or 18,789,973 pounds, aganist 11,891,445 pounds in 1879, 
and 13,918,223 pounds in 1878. The California dealers report an 
increasing demand from States east of the Mississippi, which gain 
is largely due to an increase of population, to improved means of 
transportation, and to the good quality of the coffee received from 
Salvador and Guatemala, and these factors are likely to give 
the California market greater prominence than it has hitherto 
enjoyed. 

The following statement shows in detail the import into San 
Francisco : 



200 



COFFEE. 





Imports fok Ybabs 




1880. 
Pounds. 


1879. 
Pounds. 


1878. 
Pounds. 


1877. 
Pounds. 


Rio, Mocha, etc 

Hawaiian 


524,270 

77,338 

5,059,748 

8,171,510 

4,683,282 

1,039,286 

72,140 

583,693 

2,691 

175,417 

95,887 

504,000 

10,484 

5,095 

9,882 

10,238 

91,519 


1,389,249 

40,212 

3,102,611 

5,731,108 

2,923,782 

150,999 

24.427 

268,033 

47,626 

201,776 

2,247 

7,392 


141.702 

114,282 

4.111,914 

6,717,319 

3,046,574 

42,416 

20,856 

1,058,041 

204,779 
3,213 


221,170 
141,265 


< "o.sta Rica 

Guatemala 

Salvador 


4,328,171 
6,766,450 
3,330,980 


Nicaragua 


95,139 


Mexico 


79,257 


Java 


445,400 


Tahitian 




Manila 


603.074 


Sinn^apore 


296,800 










51,121 


Chile 






























"Unspecified 














Total 


21,123,366 1 13.889.462 


15,621,098 


16,358,827 






1 





These figures differ slightly from those contained in other 
statements, and we therefore present another table, sho"wing the 
total receipts, stock, exports, and consumption for five years, 1876 
to 1880 : 





1880. 
Pounds. 


1879. 
Pounds. 


1878. 
Pounds. 


1877. 
Pounds. 


1876. 
Pounds. 


Total. . 


20,444,981 
1,229,200 


12,229,(;59 
2,034,504 


15,398,252 
1,802,116 


16,179,220 
500,000 


10,455,728 




1,594,200 








21,674,181 
4,447,230 


14,264,163 
3,171,780 


7,200,367 
2,969,310 


16,679,220 
3,073,840 


12,049,928 
485,046 


Deduct exports and shipments 




Deduct stock December 31st 


17,22fi,951 
3,532,266 


11.092,.^8:i 

1,229,200 


14,2:^1.0.57 
2,U31,,504 

12,106,553 


13,005.3b0 

1,802,115 


11,564,882 
1,200,000 




13,694,685 


9,863,183 


11,203,265 


10,364,882 







The consumption on the west coast is likely to increase rapidly, 
as the Western territories are filling up with immigrants, and the 
facilities for distributing merchandise are extending every year. 
Now that the Southern Pacific Road is open, New Orleans 
may prove a formidable competitor for the trade of the South- 
West and the Pacific Coast. The average price of Guatemala 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 



201 



coffee in San Francisco for eleven years, as compared with the 
yearly average price for fair to prime Brazil cargoes in Kew 
York, was as follows : 



Year. 


Average price 
Guatemala 
for year per 
100 lbs. 


Yearly average 
price for fair 
to prime Bra- 
zil cargoes in 
New York. 


Year. 


Average price 
Guatemala 
for year per 
100 lbs. 


Yearly average 
price for fair 
to prime Bra- 
zil cargoes ia 
New York. 


1870 


$19.12^ 

17.31 

18. 88^ 
19.83 
22.65^ 
20.34 


$16.33 
15.91 
18.43 
19.99 
21.08 
19.01 


1876 

1877 


$20.52 
19.88J 
17.4H 
16.71 
15.18 


$17.97 


1871 


19.72 


1873 .... 


1878 


16.51 


1873 


1879 


14.851 


1874 


1880 


15.12i 


1875 









In examining the following table, showing the highest and 
lowest price of fair to prime Hio coffee in New York from 1849 
to 1880, it will be noted that since 1850 there has been a steady 
appreciation in price, and that the market has always been sub- 
ject to wide fluctuations. 

The average yearly price of fair to prime Rio coffee in New 
York for thirty years, as reported to the New York Chamber of 
Commerce, was as below : 



Year. 


Per 100 lbs. 


Year. 


Per 100 lbs. 


Year. 


Per 100 lbs. 


1850 


$10.79 

9.41 

8.84 

9.77 

10.41 

10.41 

11.03i 

11.04 

10.96 

11.61 

13.60 


1861 


$14.01 
23.01 
31.18 
43.49 
20.65 
18.66 
17.24 
15.73 
15.82 
16.33 


1871 


$15.91 


1851 


1863 


1872 


18.43 


1852 


1863 


1873 


19.99 


1853 


1864 


1874 


21.08 


1854 


1865 


1875 


19.01 


1855 


1866 


1876 


17.97 


1856 


1867 


1877 


19.73 


1857 


1868 


1878 


16.51 


1858 


1869 


1879 


14.85i 


1859 


1870 


1880 


15.13 


1860 













From 1861 to June, 18G5, quotations are in currency ; after the latter date 
ia gold. 

Coffee was taken from tbe free list August 6, 1861, and a duty imposed of 4 
cents per pound ; increased December 25, 1861, to 5 cents per pound ; reduced 
January 1, 1871, from 5 to 3 cents per pound, and abolished July 1, 1872. 

The following table exhibits the lowest and highest price of 
Padang Java yearly from 1858 to 1880, and the average price 



202 



COFFEE. 



for each year. Prior to 1865 quotations are in currency, from 
that date in gold ; the Appendix furnishes a table showing the 
fluctuations in gold during the existence of a premium on the 
same : 



1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 



Lowest. 


Highest. 


Average for 
year. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


m 


20 


16.13 


13f 


16 


14.79 


Ui 


18i 


16.51 


15i 


25 


18.38 


24i 


35 


27.50 


33 


41 


37.04 


40 


60 


49.10 


24 


51 


25.82 


24 


28i 


26.08 


24 


27 


24.75 


21 


27 


23.41 


21 


25 


23.02 



Year. 



1870 

1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 



Cents. 

19 

m 
m 

19 
22 
24 
18 

22 
20i 
23i 
18 



Highest. 



Cents. 

23 

261 

25 

34 

35 

30 

26 

251 

25 

24i 

24 



Average for 
year. 



Cents. 
21.19 
21.29 
21.30 
23.63 
26.68 
26.71 
21.57 
23.82 
22.48 
24.14 
22.63 



Is the present valuation of coffee to be maintained, or are we 
to look forward again to an era of low prices ? 

To this interesting question very different answers are retiirned. 
Some predict that the range of low prices of former years has 
passed away forever, while others will only see in the rise of 
coffee since 1871 a gigantic manipulation of the staple. The ad- 
vocates of the first-mentioned theory argue that in past years the 
consumption of coffee has increased in a greater ratio than the 
productive area under cultivation ; that in the most important 
coffee-producing country — Brazil — the supply of labor has become 
insufficient ; and that, besides, the Brazilian planters, enriched by 
their profits, can now afford to hold off from an unfavorable 
market and command their own terms. It is retorted fi-om the 
opposite camp that general production has already received a 
powerful development from the high prices of the last five or six 
years — a development visible in the increased yield of the West 
Indies, and of Central and South America ; and that with regard 
to Brazil, the newly-acquired wealth of the planting class must 
necessarily tend to counteract the scarcity of labor by facilitating 
the introduction of improved machinery in its stead. If it was 
profitable, they say, to raise coffee years ago, when it could be 



y^ 



THE COFFEE TRADE. 203 

laid down here at 8 to 12 cents per pound, what must it be now 
at 12 to 16 cents per pound ? 

In view of these conflicting opinions, it is well to keep in mind 
some peculiarities of coffee-culture and of the staple itself, which 
may sometimes mislead calculation or temporarily suspend logical 
results. It takes, as we have seen, fi-om three to four years for 
new coffee plantations to come into bearing ; hence the necessity 
for a considerable outlay of capital to open a plantation ; hence, 
also, ample working room for speculative operations to move in, 
before the field can possibly respond to the market. And specu- 
lation finds still further assistance in the nature of the article, 
which, not deteriorating, but improving with age, constitutes an 
excellent security on which to borrow money.* There is, therefore, 
no doubt that a " ring," backed by sufficient capital, could for a long 
time keep up an artificial situation u and, in the present instance, 
it cannot be denied that the enTHaiTassing economical problems 
resulting from the want of hands in the coffee-producing countries 
of the western world, the unprogressive condition of Java's in- 
dustry for many years, leaf -disease in Ceylon, and the increasing 
aggregate consumption indicate a plausible foundation for at least 
a temporary advance. But, on the other hand, it must not be 
forgotten that the area for coffee culture in the world is practically 
unlimited, and that new centres of immense production have 
already sprung up in regions overflowing with cheap labor, while 
in spite of the supposed disadvantages of the Brazilian planter the 
average yearly export from Bio de Janeiro for the seven years 
from 18T4: to 1880 reached 229,149 tons, an unprecedented figure. 

I now pause to consider the consumptive requirements of the 
world, my figures, as far as possible, behig based on actual returns 
in the United States, England, France, and Germany, while for 
other countries I have availed myself of the latest accessible 
statistical tables, using quite freely as a basis those collated by 
Dr. Yan Den Berg (Historical and Statistical Notes, Java, 1880). 

* It is true that the lessons of 1880, and the downfall of the leading spirits in 
the great coffee syndicate are likely to render such operations less liable to in- 
fluence the market in future. . If, however, serious disaster should reduce the 
Brazil crop in as gi;eat a proportion as the 1880-81 Java crop has been cut down, 
the fact alone would generate new speculative ventures. 



CHAPTER XXIY. 

COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 

The United States consumes nearly one-tliird of the exports 
of coffee from all producing countries, having absorbed from a 
total production of about 525,000 tons, an average of 156,482 tons 
per annum for the last five years, of which about seventy-three 
per cent, was the product of Brazil. There seems to be a steady 
increase in the quantity taken, it having risen from an average of 
79,848 tons annually from 1857 to 1861, to 156,482 tons annually 
from 1876 to 1880. The tables of II. E. Moring & Co. make the 
consumption on the Atlantic coast for 1880, 168,678 tons, and 
the average for the five years from 1876 to 1881, 151,900 tons. 
The Pacific coast consumption avei-aged for the same period 5,080 
tons, making a total for the United States of 156,980 tons, or 498 
tons more than the net imports as reported by the United States 
Bureau of Statistics. One notable feature is the disposition among 
consumers in favor of mild coffee ; and with the opening of direct 
railway communication with our sister republic of Mexico, a greater- 
disparity than now exists between the imports of coffee from Brazil 
and those from other countries may be anticipated. In order to 
study correctly the progress of coffee consumption in the United 
States, it will be necessary to examine the subject somewhat in 
detail. 

We first present the quantities and values of tea and coffee 
imported into and exported from the United States, together with 
the net imports and the estimated imports per capita of popula- 
tion, from 1859 to 1880 inclusive. The net imports represent the 
approximate consumption, those of tea being placed in comparison 
with coffee in order to show the relative consumption of two 
articles the active principle of which is identical "in each. It is 



COFFEE-COTS"STJMPTION OF THE WORLD 205 

estimated tliat one pound of tea will go as far in supplying a 
family, as four pounds of coffee. 

When tea and coffee were subject to duty, the imports for 
consumption, i.e., the imports on which duties were paid each 
year, represented approximately the actual consumption of these 
articles ; but, since the duty has been removed, all imports of tea 
and coffee are entered for immediate consumption on theij- arrival 
from a foreign country, and go immediately into the hands of the 
importer, the entry for consumption being merely a technical 
name of the means by which the goods are delivered directly from 
the custody of the government to that of the importer. 

Of the tea and coffee entered for consumption on arrival a 
considerable amount is afterward exported. 

All the exports shown in the table are of foreign tea and 
coffee previously imported, and, therefore, the imports less the 
exports (or the net imports) form the nearest approximation which 
can be given to the consumption of these articles in the United 
States. 

It is interesting to note, in studying the table upon the next 
page, the fluctuations in the per capita consumption of tea and 
coffee. Thus we find that the minimum distribution of tea and 
coffee was in 1S63-G5, that of tea falling to one-half pound per 
capita, or just one-third of the quantity used in 1S81. We also 
find that the quantity of coffee used per head was about the same 
in 1881 as in 1859. Thus, it would appear that it took from the 
year 1863, when the consumption was only 2.2 pounds per head, 
until 1880, for the country to reach the same ratio of distribution 
as existed prior to the war. From IS To to 18 TO all the business 
industries of the country were depressed, labor was largely unem- 
ployed and immigration light, and very naturally a heavy reduc- 
tion in the use of tea and coffee was anticipated. 

The decline, however, was small, that of tea varying from 
one-quarter to one-half pound per capita, and coffee fluctuating 
between 6.2 pounds and 7.3 poimds, a fact the more remai-k- 
able, as wages were low and the financial condition of the country 
poor. 



206 



COFFEE. 



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COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 



207 



As far back as 1856-57 the consumption per capita was larger 
than the average for the past five years, which, according to Mor- 
ing's tables, was Y.09 pounds per head. The last-named authority 
places the consumption at the figures given below : . 



Year. 


Population. 


Tuns. 


Per Capita. 


1876 


46,000,000 
47,000,000 
48,000,000 
49,000.000 
50,000,000 

48,000,000 


134,109 
135,2;i8 
141,949 
179,525 
168,078 

151,900 


6.53 


1877 


6.45 


1878 

1879 


6.62 
8.21 


1880 


7.56 


Average 5 years 


7.09 



The quantities of tea and coffee taken for consumption prior 
to 1859 were as follows : 



Year ended — 



September 30- 

1830 

1840 



June 30- 



1850 . . . 
1851 . . . 
1S52 .. 
1853 . . . 
18.54 . . . 
18.55 . . . 
1856 . . , 
1857... 
1858 . . , 



Retained for Home Con- 
. suinpiiun. 



Pounds. 

6,873,091 

16,883,099 



28, 199, .591 
13,.5()4,774 
25,. 587. 668 
19,291,884 
19, 2.%. 11 3 
19,763,593 
18,181,470 
16,-500,285 
28,766,577 



Dollars. 
1,.532,211 
4,067,144 



3,983,0.54 
3.453.496 
.5,927,143 
7,024,526 
4, 933. .5.53 
4,937,610 
5,250,603 
4,344.963 
5,877,-38: 






Pounds. 
0.53 
0.99 



1.23 
0.-57 
1.03 
0.75 
0.73 
0.72 
0.64 
0..57 
0.97 



Coffee. 



Retained for Home Con- 
sumption. 



Pounds. 
38,363,687 
86,297,761 



129,791,466 
148,993,-505 
180,712,687 
185,999,243 
150,246,403 
17-5.1-50,440 
22.3,638,479 
21ti,fi.5-5,077 
174,497,161 



Dollars. 
3,180,479 

7,615,824 



9,918,472 
12,489,671 
13,372,124 
14,380,383 
13,377,973 
15,480,423 
20.321,143 
19,K09,8-54 
16,779,870 



III 
ls-3 



Pounds. 
3.0 
5.05 



5.55 

6.2 

7.3 

7.3 

5.7 

6.4 

7.9 

7.5 

5.9 



The Annual Reports of the Kew York Chamber of Commerce 
make the consumption of the Atlantic coast, and ports on the 
Gulf of Mexico, for the five years 1876 to 1880, inclusive^ as fol- 
lows : 



208 



COFFEE. 

Consuvvption of the Points. 





ISSO. 
Tons, 


1879. 
Tons. 


1S7S. 
Tons. 


1877. 
Tons. 


1876. 
Tons. 


Taken from New York 


122,098 

15,291 

36,287 

176 

429 

4,5o5 


127.336 
12.996 
30,681 

704 

478 

7,046 


94,695 
11,014 
28,899 

1,172 
345 

6,247 


86,455 
12,326 

28,099 

1,905 

279 

6,783 


83,953 


" New Orleans 

' Baltimore 


10,750 
31,105 


" Philadelphia 


798 


" Boston 


244 


" Other ports 


8,3U8 






Total 


169,416 


179,241 


142,372 


135.906 


135,058 







The above statement shows an average annual consumption 
for the past five years of 151,808 tons on the Atlantic coast, which, 
added to the figures for the Pacific coast, makes a total consump- 
tion in the United States of 156,888 tons, as against 156,980 tons, 
as given in II. E. Moring <fe Co.'s tables, and 156,482 tons, accord- 
ing to the Government returns. 

The same authority reports the deliveries at ISTew York (in- 
cluding coastwise receipts), from 1851 to 1880, inclusive, as follows : 

Deliveries at New York {including Coastwise Receijpts) for the 
jxist Thirty Years. 



Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


1851 

1852 

1853 

1854 

1855 


30,276 
32,833 
25,304 
29,843 
33,446 
36,903 
27,184 
43,819 
37,366 
29,859 


1861 

1862 

1863 

11864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 


46,339 
30,073 

28,843 
38,346 
48,754 
51,122 
59,078 
67,105 
67,289 
68,735 


1871 

1873 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


70,533 
69,713 

68,863 
83,801 
77,135 


1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 


84,087 

86,631 

94,741 

137,677 

122,995 



Average per year, 1851-1860 32,683 tons. 

Average per year, 1861-1870 50,568 " 

Average per year, 1871-1880 88,516i " 

Average per year, 1876-1880 103,224 ' ' 



A study of the preceding tables, especially in reference to the 



COFFEE-CO]S'SUMPTIOT^ OF THE WORLD. 209 

per capita consumption, bears out the rule that the extent to which 
an article of diet, like coffee, is used depends largely upon its 
cheapness. It may also be safe to assume that the shrinking and 
retrenchment process that occurred in our community between 
the years 1873 and 1879 tended to diminish consumption. Our 
laboring population was forced to economize and renounce some 
of its comforts, and, had it not been for the long period of depres- 
sion that made itself felt with severity from 1876 to 1879, the 
growth in consumption would probably have been very much 
larger than is shown by the record. 

Daring the first four months of 1881, coffee declined two to 
six cents per pound, and the consumption for that period shows a 
gain over the same time in 1880 of 11,281: tons, this fact bearing 
out the above statement. 

A period of high prices, it is evident, carries within itself a 
double influence (increased production and decreased consump- 
tion^i which must limit its extent ; and this must hold true so long 
as the productive capacity of the globe, with regard to coffee, is 
not reached. 

On the whole, to one glancing collectively over the compli- 
cated pros and cons of the question, the outlook (whatever may 
have been the statistical position in the recent past) seems to point 
to no inadequacy of the general production, while, at the same 
time, altered circumstances may prevent in our main country of 
supply a return to rates existing under a different system of labor 
and a different distribution of wealth. 

It will be interesting to follow, in the next few years, the 
phases of a problem which affects almost every breakfast-table in 
the land. A glance at the consuming power of Europe M'ill en- 
able us to better understand the relation of the world's supply of 
coffee to its demand. 

The total distribution of coffee in Europe, taking the figures 
for the past three years, will average 383,521 tons annually. 

In detail the position of coffee in the leading depots of Europe 
on December 31st, for the last three years, was reported by 
Messrs James Cook & Co., of London, as follows : 
14 



210 



COFFEE. 





Imports. 


stock 


f, December 31st. 




1880. 


1879. 


1878. 


1880. 


1879. 


1878. 


Holland 

Antwerp 


Tons. 

81,210 
45,500 
87,750 
86,000 

6,100 
11,200 

7,040 


Tons. 

67,790 

44,740 

84,100 

100,287 

7,340 
12,810 

8,490 


Tons. 

67,630 
36,070 
79,750 
87,416 

7,500 
13,260 

6,630 

298,256 
63,670 


Tons. 

29,340 

8,700 

13,000 

42,000 

470 

3,550 

1,520 


Tons. 

22,620 
3,300 
7,500 

37,420 

70 

4,300 

1,730 


Tons. 
24,160 
4,200 


Hamburg 

France 


11,000 
34,321 


Bremen 


150 


Trieste 


1,840 


Genoa 


1,420 


On Continent 

Great Britain 


324,800 

77,797 


325,557 
80,870 


98,580 
19,497 


76,940 
15,285 


77,091 
15,405 


Total 


402,597 


406,427 


361,926 


118,077 


92,225 


92,496 



The supply and distribution of three years was as follows : 





1880. 


1879. 


1878. 


Average for 
Three Years. 


Total stock January 1st 

" imports to Dec. 31st 


Tons. 

93,131 

402,597 


Tons. 

86,960 
406,427 


Tons, 

102,321 
361,926 


Tons. 
94,137 
390,317 


" supply for 12 months. . . 
Deduct stock, Dec. 31st 


495,728 
118,077 


493,387 
92,225 


464,247 
92,496 


484,454 
100,933 


Distribution in 12 months 


377,651 


401,162 


371,751 


383,521 



The distribution in 18Y7 amounted to 340,053 tons ; in 1876, 
to 378,958 tons, the average per year, for the five years 1876 to 
1880, being 373,915 tons. 

The kinds of coffee most in favor for consumption in England 
are East India, Plantation Ceylon, and Jamaica. Of Brazil, the 
consumption is small. In Great Britain there is a duty of l^d. 
per pound on raw, and 2d. per pound on roasted coffee. 

A brief mention of trade customs in England will be of in- 
terest in view of the intimate business relations between the 
United States and the United Kingdom. The terms of public 
sale (for in Great Britain coffee is sold almost entirely at auction) 
are one month's credit, with discount at the rate of five per cent, 
per annum allowed to the buyer if settlement is made before the 
month expires. A discount of one per cent, is allowed on all 
coffee, except Brazil, Guatemala, New Grenada, Laguayra, and 



COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 



211 



Honduras, which carry two and a half per cent. All sorts of 
coffee are sold in the London market, except French West India 
and Celebes. Ilayti and Padang Java are seldom offered. 

The bulk of the supply offered at the public sale comes from 
the East and West Indies, Ceylon, and Central America. Car- 
goes are purchased for any continental port, generally Hamburg, 
Antwerp, Havre, Trieste, or Marseilles, and occasionally for Bre- 
men, Copenhagen, or Stockholm. The cargoes thus sold are 
nearly all Brazil coffee, though in some few instances they in- 
clude shipments from Porto Pico, and still more rarely from 
Manila. 

The following market report illustrates the manner of doing 
business in the London market, and illustrates the relative prices, 
per cwt., of the various kinds : 



Auction — April, 1881. 



Ceylon — 1,460 casks, 940 barrels and bags : 

small 6:5s Od 70s Od 

low middling to middling .. 81s Od 8Bs Od 

good middling to good bold SSs Od 9ys Od 

good to fine bold 101s Od llOs Od 

peaberry 100s Od 107s Od 

East India — 5,680 cases and bags : 

Mt/wre^ medium to bold 115s Od 125s 6d 

small 9l)s Od 95s 6d 

Coorg, etc., gray 72s Od 78s Od 

medium 78s Od 85s Od 

good to bold 90s Od 107s Od 

peaberry 98s Od 106s Od 

Old Crop, small to bold 6;js Od 89^ Od 

Guatemala — 5,295 bags — part sold : 

good to fine ordinary foxy.. 58s Od 60s 6d 

grayish to flneord. greenish 6 is Od 66s Od 

bold to good greenish 72s Od 77s Od 

good to fine colory 65s Od 92s Od 



Mocha — 270 packages — part sold : 

short berry (mixed) 98s Od 

Jamaica — 1.090 packages — small part sold : 

old palish (mixed) 46s Od 47s Od 

Santos — 1,580 bags — part sold : 

fair to good greenish 51s Od 53s Od 

washed mottled pale 623 Od 

African — SO bags : 

fair reddish 47s Od 

Rio — 340 bags — withdrawn. 
Washed Rio— 690 bags— 

without reserve 57s Od 638 Od 

Central American. . 850 bags. " 

Costa Rica 250 bags. 

New Granada 440 bags. 

Porto Rico 1,700 bags. 

Manila 100 bags. 

Java 120 bags. 



>• chiefly bought in. 



The following table shows the imports, consumption, and stocks 
of coffee in England on December 31st of each year from 1869 to 
1880: 



Year. 


Imports. 


Consump- 
tion. 


stocks, 
Dec. 31st. 


Year. 


Imports. 


Consump- 
tion. 


stocks, 
Dec. 31st. 


1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 


Tons. 
77,416 

80,286 
85,711 
74,227 
81,876 
70,246 


Tons. 

12,994 
13.674 
13.664 
13,917 
14,192 
13,952 


Tons. 

29,468 
30,762 
24,757 
14,765 
12,516 

13,750 

1 


1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


Tons. 
79,487 

68,082 
80,414 
63,484 
80,469 

77,797 


Tons. 
14,307 
14,685 
14,413 
14,656 
15.233 
14,540 


Tons. 

17,696 
9.058 
18,596 
15.395 
15,285 
19,497 



212 



COFFEE. 



The per capita consumption of coffee in tlie United Kingdom 
is very small, tea being the favorite beverage, the consumption of 
whicli in 1879 was 160,652,187 pounds, or 4.80 pounds per head ; 
and in 1880, 158,576,334 pounds, or 4.66 pounds per head. The 
consumption of coifee between the years 1843 and 1880, inclusive, 
is given in the following table : 

Consumption in United Kingdom^ 1843-80, inclusive. 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Per Head.' 

1 


Year. 


Pounds. 


Per Head. 


1843 

1844 


29,979,404 
31,352,382 
34,293,190 
36,754,554 
37,441,373 
37,077,546 
34,399,374 
31,166,358 
32,504,545 
34,978,432 
36,983,123 
37,350,924 
35,704,564 
34,995.944 
34,367,484 
35,338,111 
34,492,947 
35,674,381 
35,375,675 


1.10 
1.14 
1.23 
1.30 
1.33 
1.37 
1.24 
1.14 
1.18 
1.27 
1.34 
1.34 
1.28 
1.34 
1.31 
1 34 
1.20 
1.23 
1.21 


1863 

1863 

1804 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1873 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


34,664,155 
32,986,116 
31,591,122 
30,748,349 
30,944,363 
31,567,760 
30,008,464 
29,109,113 
30,029,710 
31,010,645 
31,661,311 
32,330,928 
31,860,080 
32,526,256 
33.343,388 
33,830,224 
33,S93,248 
34.090,256 
32,569,824 


1.18 
1.11 


1845 


1.06 


1846 


1.03 


1847 


1.03 


1848 


1.05 


1849 


1.01 


1850 


0.94 


1851 


0.99 


1852 


0.98 


1853 


l.CO 


1854 


1.01 


1855 


0.99 


1856 


1.01 


1857 


1.03 


1858 


0.99 


1859 


1.00 


I860 


1.04 


1861 


0.96 







" If we examine closely the statistics of coffee-consumption in 
England," remarks Mr. Simmonds, " we find that in the first four 
years of the century it was only an ounce per head ; in the five 
years ending 1809 it averaged three ounces. It then increased in 
the next quinquennial period to six ounces, at which proportion 
it remained steady till 1825-29, when it advanced to eleven 
ounces, increased in the next five years to fifteen ounces, averaged 
about a pound per head for the following ten years, and then 
kept steady at about a pound and a quarter till 1861, since 
which period it has been gradually declining contemporaneously 
with the increased consumption of tea, and notwithstanding a re- 
duction of duty." In 1880 we find that the people of England 
were using nearly five pounds of tea to each pound of coffee con- 
sumed. 



COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 



213 



Tlie causes of this movement of the two staples in opposite di- 
rections would certainly form an interesting subject of inquiry. 
Are we to sec here the operation of that " British pride," which, 
in a French opinion already quoted, had so much to do with the 
first adoption of coffee in England, or that general law which 
prompts the metropolis to become a consumer of the products of 
its dependencies — a law exemplified in the case of Spain and Por- 
tugal, which to this day continue to use chocolate long after the 
colonies from which they drew the article have become indepen- 
dent states. But, if the trade of China is to all intents and pur- 
poses British trade, and the East generally is next to British, do 
not the British colonies of Ceylon and India produce coffee in in- 
creased quantities ? If the higher price of coffee has not pre- 
vented the spread of its popularity on the continent — in France, 
for instance — can we look to that cause with regard to wealthy 
England, where habits of economy among the people prevail to a 
much more limited extent ? Or, is it entirely a preference of 
taste, a special congeniality of tea to the British temperament — a 
peculiar adaptability to British diet — as some will have it ? 

Professor Lehman considered that the preference of the Eng- 
lish for tea was due to the larger supply of plastic material 
afforded by their diet — a fact which rendered desirable the pro- 
portionately greater nervous stimulus which is caused by tea, 
while the populations of France and of Germany, being much 
lighter " feeders," found an important element in the retardation 
of the assimilative process by the influence of coffee. 

The table below exhibits the imports, consumption, and 
stocks of coffee in France on December 31st, from 1869 to 
1880 : 



Tear. 


Imports. 


Consump- 
tion. 


stocks on 
Dec. 31st. 


Tear. 


Imports. 


Consump- 
tion. 


stocks on 
Dec. 31st. 


1869 

1870 

1871 

1873, 

1873 

1874 


Tons. 
84,568 
67,378 
59,407 
41,464 
73.895 
64,838 


Tons. 

50.337 
73,665 
40,155 
16,708 
44,834 
38,706 


Tons. 

31,333 
3.935 
3,363 
10,683 
19,853 
15,311 


1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


Tons. 
91,309 
86.597 
74,178 
87.416 
100,337 
88,040 


Tons. 
48,013 

53.487 
47,810 
54.105 
56,835 

57,733 


Tons. 
85,068 
30,189 
39,735 
34,331 
38,931 
40,904 



214 



COFFEE. 



The new French tariff imposes the following rates of duty 
upon coffee, given in francs and centimes per 100 kilos : 

New tariff. Old tariff. 

S:ro":i:"aod°ii::::;:::;::-.:::::;;;:;:m22 fwo.ootomoo 



The average consumption from 1876 to 1880 was 63,990 tons 
(120,937,600 pounds), which, divided among a population of 
37,405,000 persons, shows a use of 3.23 pounds per capita. 

In Germany the use of coffee is very general. For the last 
five years the consumption averaged 101,655 tons per annum, 
which, with a population of 43,000,000, makes it 5.3 pounds per 
capita. The consmnption from 1869 to 1880, inclusive, was as 
follows : 





Tons. 




Tons. 




Tons. 


18G9 


81.368 


1873 


97,775 


1877 


95,779 


1870 


98,350 


1874 


90,033 


1878 


1)9,284 


1871 


86,400 


1875 


100,613 


1879 


113,594 


1872 


93,585 


1876 


106,398 


1880 


94,238 



Coffee in Holland is entered free of duty, and the consump- 
tion is very large ; it is difficult to obtain an accurate statement 
of the quantity used. The imports for the last five years aver- 
aged 5.3 pounds per capita. The following table gives the amount 
for each year, from 1869 to 1880, inclusive : 



1869 

1870 
1871 
1873 



Tons. 

59,160 
69,040 
80,630 
45,360 





Tons. 


1873 


70,490 


1874 


63,900 


1875 


81.630 


1876 


55,950 



1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 



Tons. 

84,240 

67,630 
67,790 
82,620 



The people of Belgium, being fond of coffee, used from 1872- 
77 an average of 21,718 tons (48,649,000 pounds) per annum, 
which is equivalent to nine pounds per capita. 

The enormous consumption in Holland is accounted for by 
the climate, by the want of good drinking-water, but, principally, 
by the great cheapness of coffee in that coimtry. " At the pres- 



COFFEE-CONSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 215 

ent prices," said a Dutch writer in 18G8, " coffee is in Holland 
the cheapest of all articles of food." 

The nations of Northern Europe, it will be noticed, are heavy 
coffee-drinkers, with the exception of Russia, which is essentially 
a tea and spirit drinking nation. 

The average annual import into the Netherlands from 1873 to 
1877 was 101,567 tons; the export for the same period averaged 
70,839 tons per annum, thus making the consumption 30,728 tons 
per annum, or 68,830,720 pounds, which, on a basis of population 
of 4,000,000, is equal to seventeen pounds per capita. Dr. Yan 
Den Berg furnishes the following statement : 

1863— 18G7. 

Kilos. Tons. 

General import 81,494,000 80.038 

" export 67,534,000 66,328 

Probable consumption 13,960,000 13,710 

18C8— 1873. 

General import 93,916,000 91,357 

" export 74,689,000 73,355 

Probable consumption 18,237,000 17,903 

1873—1877. 

General import 103,416,000 101,569 

" export 73,137,000 70,839 

Probable consumption 31,389,000 30,730 

The above statement shows a remarkable increase, the present 
consumption amounting to about eighteen pounds annually per 
capita, based on a population, from 1873 to 1877, of 3,850,000 per- 
sons. 

In Austria the consumption, according to the returns from 
1874 to 1878, was 36,587 tons (81,953,960 pounds) per annum, 
which, with a population of 37,000,000, gives a per capita use of 
2,21 pounds. 

Switzerland uses 8,200 tons per annum, which, divided among 
2,750,000 inhabitants, gives to each 6.68 pounds. 

Italy, from 1873 to 1877, consumed 12,635 tons (28,303,000 
pounds), or equal to 1.05 pounds per capita, placing tlie popula- 
tion at 27,000,000. 

In Spain, cocoa or chocolate is used in preference to coffee, of 



216 COFFEE. 

which a small quantity is imported, the amount varying from 
2,250 to 3,150 tons per annum. Coffee pays customs duty, per 
kilogram, 2 reals vellon ; municipal duty, per kilogram, 1.08 reals 
vellon ; transitory duty, per kilogram, 1.08 reals vellon ; total 
customs duty, per kilogram, 4.16 reals vellon. The duties on 
coffee amount to about 39 per cent, on cost. Portugal is a very 
small consumer, also Greece, the two countries not taking, as an 
extreme figure, over 2,500 tons per annum. The statistics relative 
to the other parts of Europe show that in Russia, Sweden, Korway, 
Asiatic and European Turkey, and Denmark, about 50,000 tons 
of coffee are used annually. 

Bringing together the figures showing the consumption in the 
different parts of Europe and the United States, we have the ex- 
tent of the present demand made by coffee-consuming countries 
upon the coffee-plantations of the world : 

Tons. 

Average yearly consumption in the United States, 1876 — 1880 156,482 

" " " United Kingdom, 1876— 1880 14,896 

'♦ " in France, 1876— 1880 53,990 

«« " in ZoUverein (Germany), 1876— 1880 101,655 

" " in Belgium, 1872-1877 21,718 

" " in Netherlands, 1873-1877 30,730 

" in Austria, 1873— 1878 36,587 

" " inltaly, 1872—1877 13,635 

" " in Switzerland, 1873— 1878 8,150 

'• " in Spain and Portugal, estiraatfd 3,000 

" «' in other countries in Europe, partly estimated.. . 52,5C0 

Average annual consumption, Europe and North Ajaerica 492,343 

The quantity of coffee consumed per annum in Europe, ac- 
cording to the above table, is 335,861 tons, or 38,054 tons less 
than the distribution as given in the trade circular of Messrs. 
James Cook & Co., of London. An accurate estimate of the 
quantity consumed in Europe and ISTorth America cannot be made, 
owing to the lack of official statistics in some countries, to the 
unkno\vn quantity held as stock beyond first hands, to the want of 
reliable figures showing re-exports from importing countries, 
and to the imperfection of existing data ; yet it can be closely ap- 
proximated, and we feel safe in making the statement that 500,000 



COFFEE-COTiSUMPTION OF THE WORLD. 217 

to 510,000 tons is a full estimate for present requirements in this 
country and in Europe. 

The compilation of Dr. Van Den Berg makes the total con- 
sumption of Europe and the United States 479,000,000 kilos, or 
493,482 tons. The rest of the world dependent upon the coffee- 
exporting countries for a supply does not require annually more 
than 12,000 tons, so that we can safely say that a supply of 510,000 
tons will be ample to meet the wants of the coffee-consuming 
countries of the world. Brazil has furnished for the past three 
years an average of 241,765 tons; Java, 89,797 tons; Ceylon, 
43,022 tons ; India, 16,077 tons ; the West Indies, 40,000 tons ; 
Central America, 50,000 tons; Venezuela and Xew Grenada, 
35,000 tons ; Mexico, 5,000 tons ; Arabia, 4,000 tons. Thus, 
leaving all other minor producing points out of our calculation — 
which will balance any over-estimate for Central America — we 
have from the countries named above a supply of 524,661 tons. 
From this showing it appears that supply is fully abreast of de- 
mand, despite leaf-disease in Ceylon, while the excess of stocks 
held at the beginning of 1881 will quite balance the short Java 
crop of 1880-81. 

To what extent new plantations that are to come into bearing 
in South America, Mexico, and Central America, will add to the 
supply, is a problem that only time can enable us to solve. There 
is everything in the situation to warrant a range of prices much 
lower than those ruling from 1862 to 1879, the more so as there 
is little chance of speculative rings being formed, for Europe is 
not given to such operations, and American coffee-merchants 
have during the past year been taught a lesson that will not soon 
be forgotten. 



CIIAPTEE XXY. 

THE KING OF THE COFFEE TRADE. 

FivE-AND-FORTY years ago, or thereabouts, a bright, ambitions 
youth left his home in Rhode Island and came to New York, 
bringing with him a first-class reputation as an accountant. In 
fact, his business tact and ability were of so high an order that 
they soon commanded attention. He made a connection, in 1836, 
with one of the largest and most respectable firms on the east side 
of the city, engaged in the grocery business. 

This young man possessed in an eminent degree the faculty 
which marks most men of note — that of keeping his own counsels. 
Although possessing great confidence in his own abilities, he was 
modest and unobtrusive in manner, and pursued his ambitions in 
a resolute but quiet way, which, for the time being, attracted but 
little attention. 

There is nothing special to record regarding the next fifteen 
years of his life, other than to say that his social position was all 
that could be desired, and his progress and reputation as a mer- 
chant rapid for those days. In 1851 he was admitted a junior 
partner in the proud firm he had so long and faithfully served — 
a firm standing at the veri^ head of the coffee trade. The senior 
member of the firm was one of those merchant-princes of whom 
New York was, and is still, justly proud. In financial as well as 
trade circles the name of this man was a tower of strength, while 
socially he occupied a first place. To be associated with such a 
man as a partner was no small honor, and ourKliode Island youth 
estimated the privilege for all that it was worth, and undoubtedly 
looked forward to the day when the senior should retire and the 
junior succeed to his place. That day came after various changes, 



THE KING OF THE COFFEE TRADE. 219 

in 1868, and tlie book-keeper of 1836 became the head of a large 
firm, with a clear half -million to his credit. 

Ambitious to make his mark in the business world, and to 
become the peer of his illustrious predecessor, he launched out 
boldly, and in 1869 we find him engineering a great speculation 
in coffee. Old bankers shook their heads ominously, and doubted 
his ability to wear the laurels won by the merchant-prince who 
formerly directed the firm's affairs. The bankers felt that pru- 
dence dictated a conference wdth the new man at the helm, espe- 
cially as he w^as inclined to enter upon bold speculative operations. 
To them, in substance, the merchant said : " Whatever else I 
know, I think I know the coffee trade thoroughly. I shall act 
upon my own judgment, and by it ' sink or swim.' " 

Those who are familiar with the coffee trade will by this time 
have recognized the pen-picture we have drawn as that of B. G. 
Arnold, the well-kno\vn " King of the Coffee Trade." For more 
than ten years he ruled the coffee market of this country as abso- 
lutely as any hereditary monarch controls his kingdom, and his 
influence was felt throughout the commercial world. Our tables of 
prices bear eloquent testimony of his power, and it is known that 
the operations of a single year succeeding the interview w^ith the 
bankers above noted yielded his firm a profit of one million two 
hundi-ed thousand dollars. In the social world he filled a large 
place. At his palatial residence the President of the United States 
was a guest, and the periodical receptions were social events. But 
all things come to an end, and in accordance with this immutable 
law, the control which Mr. Arnold and his associates exercised over 
the coffee market finally ceased. For the first five years of the de- 
cade 1870-1880, the coffee market had been steadily forced up 
until abnormally high prices were reached ; these stimulated pro- 
duction, and in 1876, while in Java, the writer, in a letter to 
the American Grocer, used the following words : " As a conse- 
quence of these high prices many new coffee-gardens have been 
planted, and these are just beginning to bear and must inevitably 
have an effect upon the future market. The quantity of govern- 
ment coffee raised in Java last year, which was rather a poor year, 
was 491,000 piculs, W'hile the crop of 1876, which is a good year, 
is 1,266,000 piculs. It is also said that the production has pro- 



220 COFFEE. 

portionately increased in Sumatra and other cofPee-bearing islands 
of the Malay Archipelago, and that the average yield during the 
next few years must be very large. If the same causes produce 
like effects in other coffee-producing sections of the globe, we may 
reasonably look forward to moderate prices for this staple in the 
future." 

The sequel is known to all: production outran consumption, 
prices went down, down, down, despite the desperate and more or 
less successful efforts made at times to rally the market, until the 
final result came in the disastrous failures in 1880, which swept 
away the leading houses of the coffee trade in the United States. 
The chief cause of this disaster seems to have been an inability on 
the part of the leading spirits in the coffee trade to look on both 
sides of the question, a result which inevitably comes sooner or 
later in all speculative transactions. 

- As usual, since the great failures in the coffee trade, there have 
been plenty of persons ready to say unkind things of the chief 
actors in the drama ; but, while there can be but one opinion as to 
the welfare of the public being subserved by the failure of specu- 
lative combinations, all who know Mr. B. G. Arnold are ready 
to concede that the failure of such a man is, in one sense, a public 
misfortune. As an industrious, energetic, and upright merchant, 
faithfully fulfilling every engagement ; as a charitable and public- 
spirited citizen, fully performing his duty to society, the character 
of Mr. Arnold stands out in bold relief and is w^orthy of all com- 
mendation. 

He still continues in business with his son, Mr. F. B. Arnold, 
and, with his intimate knowledge of the staple and his long 
business experience, it is not improbable that there may come 
another phase to this romance of trade, and " the king will have 
his own again." 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



THE TROPICS BEST GIFT. 



How little do the millions throughout the civilized world, 
who sit at their breakfast-tables, realize the labor and pains which 
have been taken to place before them the fragrant cup which, if 
good, makes everything good ! 

From the time when the little seedling first shoots above the 
ground in the tropics, it is watched and shaded, pruned and cul- 
tured by the dusky sons of toil ; nor is the task near ended when 
the planter sees his hopes realized in the red, ripe berry. 

Let us trace it from hand to hand until it reaches the table of 
the consumer. In its gathering and preparation a vast amount 
of labor is required ; then comes its transportation to the sea- 
board, where it is weighed, stored, sampled, assorted, and sold, 
oftentimes passing through the hands of several owners before 
shipment to the country where it is destined to be consumed. 
Here it is placed in great warehouses and the same formalities are 
again observed. After leaving the plantation and before reaching 
the consumer, it has paid tribute to the transporter to the shipping 
port, to the laborers, warehousemen, brokers, merchants, and 
bankers of that (Country ; to the ships which carry it abroad ; to 
the custom-houses of importing countries, to their stevedores, 
storage warehouses, insurance companies, and bankers ; to the 
brokers who sample and sell it, the weighers who weigh it, and 
the wholesale merchants who buy it. Then comes its cartage or 
lighterage, its roasting and sale to retail merchants, and its trans- 
portation to the point where it is finally distributed and consumed. 
Twelve hundred millions of pounds of coffee annually pass through 
this routine, and probably a hundred millions of people, besides 
the consumers, are directly or indirectly benefited. Factories 



222 COFFEE. 

have been brought into existence to manufacture the machinery 
required in the cultivation and preparation of this staple ; great 
mills work throughout the whole year on the bagging required for 
the packages ; warehouses worth millions have been provided for 
its storage ; mighty fleets of vessels are created and maintained 
for its carriage on the sea, and railroads for its transportation on 
land. Governments find it a chief source of customs revenue. In 
the eleven years, 1861 to 1872, the import duty on coffee yielded 
nearly one hundred millions of dollars to the United States Gov- 
ernment. In England, France, German}^, and other countries, it 
contributes largely to the national treasuries, while in Brazil the 
export duty on coffee is the chief source of revenue. All this 
from a little berry which hardly more than two centuries since 
was scarcely kuown in commerce, and whose chief development 
has been witliin the last century. Surely, it nmst have some 
precious properties to thus command the homage of the civilized 
world ! 

It has been said of wine that 

" It warms the heart and stirs the blood 
Till it leaps in the veins like a bounding flood." 



It has also been said that " wine is a turncoat : first a friend, 
and then an enemy." But coffee is an ever-faithful, steadfast 
friend, and whether in torrid, or temperate, or frigid climes, 
everywhere throughout the civilized world, in the king's palace or 
the laborer's hut, it is eagerly prized, for it cheers and comforts, 
brightens and blesses, as doth no other substance under the sun. 

Brillat Savarin said, " A last course at dinner wanting cheese 
is like a pretty woman with only one eye ; " and if this be true of 
cheese, is it not doubly so of coffee, and without coffee and cheese 
would not a dinner be like a beautiful woman with both " win- 
dows of the soul" lacking? Certain it is that since Savarin's 
time all gourmets have concurred in adding coffee as the ap- 
propriate and crowning luxury of a perfect dinner ; when coffee 
is served, then " the feast of reason and flow of soul " begins, and 
without the fragrant cup dulness prevails. 

It is a striking fact that coffee is pre-eminently a promoter of 
the social element ; from its earliest use this has been a notable 



THE tropics' best GIFT. 223 

feature. It has also indirectly been an aid to liberty and freedom 
of speech, for when it attracted men together they naturally dis- 
cussed events, and free discussion is the parent of liberty. As 
stated elsewhere, its use in Moslem countries met with strong op- 
position from both the civil and religious authorities ; and in Eng- 
lish history we find that, in 1GT5, Charles II. attempted to suppress 
the then new institution of coffee-houses by a royal proclamation 
in which it was stated that they were the resort of disaffected per- 
sons, " who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious, and 
scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty's government 
and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the nation." On 
the opinion of legal persons being taken as to the legality of this 
step, an oracular deliverance was given to the effect that " the re- 
tailing of coffee might be an innocent trade, but, as it was used to 
nourish sedition, spread lies, and scandalize great men, it might 
also be a common nuisance." 

That coffee promotes sociability among men cannot be doubted 
any more than that its twin sister, the fragrant leaf of China and 
Japan, promotes sociability among women, and in the above 
oflScial announcement of the advisers of Charles II. the ladies 
have an argument which they can throw in the teeth of the sterner 
sex, if any be so unkind as to intimate that tea-parties are the 
source of much scandal and gossip. 

The active stimulating element is the same in both coffee and 
tea ; in the former it is known as caffeine, while in the latter it has 
been designated theine. As explained elsewhere, they are chemi- 
cally identical, and their effect upon the nervous system, when 
taken in equal quantities, is precisely similar. Considering its 
importance from an economic and therapeutic standpoint, this 
substance does not seem to have received from scientific men the 
attention which it deserves. This subtle principle embodied in 
Arabia's fragrant berry has outlived prejudice, has triumphed over 
opposition ; religious and political bigotry, aided by military force, 
has failed to suppress it ; and may we not claim that it has fairly 
won the first place in the world's social and domestic economy, and 
that it is truly the tropics' best gift ? 



STATISTICAL TABLES 



SHOWINa THE 



IMPORTS, EXPORTS, CONSUMPTION, RECEIPTS, AND 

PRICES OF COFFEE IN THE UNITED STATES 

AND FOREIGN MARKETS. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



227 



STATISTICAL TABLES 



SHOWING THE 



IMPOr.TS, EXPOr^TS, CONSUMPTION, RECEIPTS, AND PRICES OF 
COFFEE IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN MARKETS. 



TABLE I. 

Imports, Exports, Consumption, and StocJc of Coffee in the United 
States, AtUmtic Coast, from 1854 to 1880, inclusive. 



Year. 


Imports. 
Total tons. 


Exports. 
Total tons. 


Consumption. 
Total tons. 


stock, Dec. 3l8t. 
Total tons. 


1854 


81.460 

106,345 

103,100 

97,365 

101,635 

110,950 

82,957 

81,360 

44,000 

33,602 

64,868 

59,632 

73,834 

101,037 

106,130 

108,107 

120,133 

144,065 

124,106 

120,831 

123,174 

159,393 

119,285 

151.123 

145,907 

197,810 

176,694 


5,611 

6,958 
8,945 

13,097 
3,800 
8.593 
3,760 
3,537 
4,613 
1,445 
9,484 
2,413 
2,237 
3,897 
5,065 
7,093 
2,543 
2,575 
2,588 
8,066 
1,931 
8,496 
8,855 
4,141 
6,302 
7,495 

10,777 


80,125 

93,919 

97,433 

77,038 

112,167 

99,380 

79,008 

83,503 

39,738 

35,589 

48,700 

57,191 

71,391 

90,807 

99,643 

108,479 

125,407 

141,344 

131,303 

120,303 

123,913 

136,649 

134,109 

135,238 

141,949 

179,525 

168,678 


8,700 


1855 


14,168 
15 900 


1856 


1857 


23,030 


1858 


8 700 


1859 


11 677 


1860 


11,786 


1861 


6,107 


1862 


5,766 


1863 


2,334 
9,018 
9,046 
9 253 


18G4 


1865 


1866 


1867 

1808 


16,585 
18 088 


1869 


10 625 


1870 


8,811 


1871 


8,954 
9,169 
5,951 

3 381 


1872 


1873 

1874 


1875 


20,529 


1876 

1877 


1,850 
13,594 
11,250 

22 040 


1878 


1879 


1880 


13,279 







228 



COFFEE. 



TABLE n. 

Heceipts and Consumption of Coffee i?i the United States, 1851 to 

1880, inclusive. 



Year. 


Receipts. 
Tons. 


Consumption. 
Tons. 


Year. 


Receipts. 
Tons. 


Consumption. 
Tons. 


1851 


96,448 

91,760 

86.210 

81,461 

106,345 

103,086 

97,264 

101,632 

110,949 

82,937 

81,359 

43,999 

33,598 

64,868 

59,631 


82,243 
91,514 

78,432 
80,125 
97,490 
97,422 
77,038 
112,107 
99.379 
79,067 
83,502 
39,727 
35,589 
48,699 
57,208 


1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


73,836 
101,038 
106,255 
108,307 
126,134 
144,062 
123,944 
120,146 
124,960 
157,862 
119,550 
152,327 
147,030 
198,010 
176,581 


71,393 


1852 


90,851 


1853 


99,643 


1854 


108,679 
125,407 
141 343 


1855 


1856 


1857 


121,303 
120,150 
'126,200 


1858 


1859 


1860 


137,321 


1861 


135,058 


1862 


135,906 


1863 


142,373 


1864 


179,241 


1865 


166,463 







In the above statement of consumption we have included only the direct 
receipts at the ports, the coastwise receipts being embraced in the calculation at 
the port of original entry. 



TABLE III. 

Comparative Prices, New York-Marhet, 1858 to 1880, inclusive. 



Year. 


Brazil. 


Java. 


Maracaibo 


Year. 


Brazil. 


Java. 


Maracaibo 


1858 


10.96 


16.13 


12.04 


1870 


16.33 


21.19 


17.47 


1859 


11.61 


14.79 


11.89 


1871 


15.91 


21.29 


16.23 


1860 


13.69 


16.15 


13.83 


1873 


18.43 


21.30 


18.18 


1861 


14.01 


18.38 


15.38 


1873 


19.99 


23.63 


20.51 


1863 


23.01 


27.50 


24.31 


1874 


21.08 


26.68 


20.87 


1863 


31.18 


37.04 


31.93 


1875 


19.01 


26.71 


20.54 


1864 


42.49 


49.10 


41.59 


1876 


17.97 


21.57 


17.03 


1865 


20.65 


25.83 


21.30 


1877 


19.72 


23.82 


18.93 


1866 


18.66 


26.08 


19.45 


1878 


16.51 


22.48 


15.53 


1867 


17.24 


24.75 


17.69 


1879 


14.85 


24.14 


14.70 


1868 


15.73 


23.41 


16.38 


1880 


15.13 


22.12 


15.53 


1869 


15.82 


23.02 


17.54 











The highest price of Rio in 1864 was 53J^ cents, in July ; lowest, 33)^ cents, in January. 
Java sold in August of that year at GO cents, and in January at 40 cents, currency. From 
1861 to 1865 quotations in currency, after that date in gold. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



229 



TABLE IV. 

Cargo Prices of Fair to Prime Pio Coffee in New York, Duty 
Paid, Monthly, from 1835 to 1880, inclusive. 



1825. , 

1820. 

1827. 

1828. , 

183'J. , 

1830. , 

18:51.. 

1S32.. 

1S3J. 

1834. 

1835. 

183G. 

1837. 

1838. 

1839., 

1840. 

1841. 

1842. 

1843. 

1844. 

1845. 

1846. 

1847. 

1848. 

1840. 

1850. 

1851. 

1852. 

18.53. 

1854. 

1855. 

1856. 

1857. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 

1861. 

186:3. 

1863. 

1864* 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 



Highest. 



16 —March 

14 — September 
14 — September 
12 — September 

12 — June 

10 — September 

10 — January . . 

12 —May 

11 —May 

11 

11 — January . . 
11 — January . . 

9 —July 

9 —March 

9 — December . 

9 —July ' 

9 — June ...... 

6 — Decemlier . 
6 — September. 
6 — — 

5 —July 

6 — October. . . 

6 — June 

5 — August . . . 
5 — January . . 

7 —May 

7 — November . 

7 — February . 

8 — January . . 
8 — December . 

8 — January . . 

9 —July 

10 — January . . 

9 — February . 

10 — January . . 

11 — February . 
11 — January . . 
10 — February . 
26 — September. 
115^-July 

14 — December. 
10}^-July 

9 — December . 

8X — January . . 

^% — January . . 

93^ — January . . 
10)-.< — January .. 

14,11- April 

17i|' — March 

16^ — September. 
15%— March .... 
163^ — August . . . 

15 — November. 
14 — December . 

13 —May 

11% — December . 



19 —May 

17 — January . . 

15 — February . 

15 — January . . 

13 — January . . 

13 — January . . 

13 — November. 

14 —November. 
14 —March 

12 — — .... 

13 — January . . 
13 —March . . . . 
12 — February . 
12 — December. 

12 — Apr:i 

12 —October... 

11 — February . 

10 — January . . 

9 —May 



Average prices. 



16% 

14K 
14 

13% 

12 

11 

11 

13)^ 

12 

11 

IIX 
11 
9% 

10 
«K 
93< 

Qli 
6 



@ 
@ 
@ 
@ 
@ 
@ 
@ 
@ 
@ 

(a 
@ 
® 
@ 
@ 
. @ 
i @ 



8 — October . . 
8 — January . . 
8 — January . . 
8 — January . . 

1 - — December . 

14 — February . 

11 — February . 
10 —May 

12 — December. 

12 — January . . 

13 — September 
12 — January . . 

12 —July 

13 — November. 
13 — December . 

15 — August . . . 

17 — December. 
33 — December . 
33 — December . 

32%— April 

183^— June 

lei^— March .... 

141;— April 

12'^— March .... 

12 —April 

131^— April 

18 — December. 

19 — June 

37 — December. 
28 — January . . 
313^ — September 
191^ — January . . 
21 3^ — January . . 
18% — January . . 
18 — November. 
17 — January . . 

* Gold prices. 



6)-^ 
6% 

Q'A 
10 

8^ 
8 

8}i 
9 

10 

lOK 

9% 
10}i 
13 

13X 

31 

29% 

15)^ 

15 

I'-^K 
10% 

9K 
11% 
12 

153^ 
19K 
19% 

181^ 

r>H 

18 

i^H 

14 
14>^ 



17>^ 
1.51? 
14X 
133^ 
13% 

UK 
12% 

12% 
12 

13X 
13 

ll>i 
11)^ 
11% 
10% 

93i 

8 

7 

% 
fi% 

'?K 

9 
10 

nyi 

10% 

11)^ 

ii>^ 

11 

12 

14 
15 
23 
31 
17 
17 

lo% 

11% 

11% 

13>^ 

14 

18 

31 

23 

19?^ 

18% 

19 

173^ 

15% 

16 



5 cents per pound. 



1 
Free. 



Free in Am. ships. 
Free. 



5 cents per pound. 



From July 1, freo. 
Free. 



230 



COFFEE. 



00 



s 



'5i 



pq 



e 

i>ii 



^ 



O 



o 









: ^f 'Ti I 1 fC 0? CO 071 



Kmm \ n 






ooo-"-'t-(.-iT-i^i-ims< 



Cl-r*!?*— T-Hi-li-iOO — ■r^i-H 



iiiii>g®©«i'ii) 

C» (W (7< 'M W r?? (N 0» '?> (W C> Ci 



iC-^-l^ ICO I I [ corcKico 

i;i)i(gi©(g(|;iiii) 

TT ro CO CO ?> ?? '^7 CO (?» c^ c? '^» 



icicicjioioj j I 1 [mm 






t- r- t- 1- I OT 



^^^ C pn3 . 0) 









t- it-oooot-t-c-xooajco 
(g)(g)®g(g(g(§)(S(® (&.(!© 



t- I t- 1- 1- 1- r- 1- 1- 1- f t- 

©©g(g©©<g©®©©© 



©(g€g©(S©(|(£©@(S) 



ouxott-oooot-t-t-t-t-o 



Tl I r-OOOOr-lT-l-pHi-IO 



rH T-i ^ tH O O O O i-tW I i-( 

iiiiiiiSii^i 

ov c; C-. c: 01 C-. cr. c: o c r-i o 

iiiiiiiiiii'i 

Oi-fT-'OOOOOOOCSOS 
«'!'N«(N5»(Ni-l.-i»ii-l^-fH 

iEi Eiiiiii i® 

cxNcoco lOTT^cr? Iff* [w 



rt'£w'^i33'S3jruo<a 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



231 



Cargo Prices in Gold, " in IBond^'' for Fair to Prime Rio Coffee in 
New York, from 1840 to 1880 inclusive. 



January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Average . . 



1846 



7 @ 
7 ® 
7^@ 

7>.r(a 

7Mi8t 



6.9n@,7.90 



1847 



7X® 
7 @ 

73^® 
7y.-rii 
73^® 
fix® 
7 ® 

7 (?^ 
6M@ 
7 ® 
6Ji@ 



7X 



6.94@7.75 



fi^^rgi 71^ 

6'i(ai 7Lr 

6%'fft 714 
6;.i(a 7;<i 
6?,f(?(), 7!^ 
C'o® 6?^ 

5'.,fPft 6J^ 
5X® e.'-i 



6.19@7.08 



1849 



S'i® 7 
5;„® 7 
6>^@ 7 
6 ® 7K 
6 ® 7.!5f 
@, 7>^ 

63^(9). 8 
7!:f(g)]0 
93<;@10X 
9>^@11X 



6.68® 8.07 



1850 



11 ©12 
14 (c^U^ 
13 @13,>ti 

12 ®123^ 
9 ® 9>r 
75;^® 9^ 
9 ®10><f 
9 @10i^ 
9 @11 
9%®12i^ 

li>3i®n>i 
10 @11X 



10,28@11.54 



10 ®11% 

11 ©.IIX 

1UX®113^ 
10 ®lU5-4' 
9i4'®10 

Hx@ 9>r 

8 @ 9 
8 @ 9 
8 @ 9 
7j^@ 9'^ 

7x® y^ 



January . . . . 
February . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

Septetpber . . 

October 

November . . 
December. .. 

Average 



8 ® 8Y1 
7X® '.tX 
8>4® 93<J 
8>v@10 
8^'®10J^ 
8J4® 93,f 
i^^^Gh, 9'^ 
8'i@, 9X 
8 ® 91.4- 
8 ® 9>4^ 
8 ® 93i 
83<r@ 9% 



8X® 954: 
8?4'@ ^'4 
83i@10 
83i®10 
9 @ 9^4 
S ® 9% 

8 ®l(l 
8J^@10 

9 (?^,12 
95i@ll?^ 

10 (?7lll'i 

10%®12 



8.19@9.52 I 8.98@10..54 



1854 



ll^®12ii 

9X@119i 
9>^(ai23^ 

10 ®11)^ 
9!«(rAllX 
9}4@.U)i 
83^;cr)ll 
9 (fiill 
9 ©11'^ 

10 @12 

93<faii'x 

9 ©10;^ 



9.40@11.57 



1855 



9 ®10% 

9 ©lOVi 

9 @-llJi 

10 ®115i 

10 ®11 

8y,®iox 

10 ®ll>!f 

10 ®12 
10 @ii% 
10 ©iix 

9>^®123.^ 



9.5S@11.37 



10 ®12i^ 
10 @123^ 
10i^@12><f 
]0>^©12 
1(1>^®12 
9^@11% 
9i<-@i2 
10'4'(ri'n',' 

io>ifr;,ii'i' 

10V,@12 
lOVjfSUlK 
10 ®11M 



10 @11><? 

10 ®1H< 
10>^@11% 
10>J@12 
10'i@13 
10%®115^ 

11 ®12 
11>^@12>^ 
11 ©12!^ 
11 ®12 

lOX-fill 

0>^@10J^ 



10.15@11.9410.58®11.73 



January 

February . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. . 

October 

November . . 
December. . . 

Average 



iQiiShUX 
10!^®11>^ 

10i4Trtjll3< 

lOV^lO-J^ 

10'^@.11>^ 

10>?(?7il2 

12 ®12i.^ 

10'<@12 

10Ji@12 



1859 



1054@12 
10«.i©12 
I0a<®12'< 
11 @12'4- 
11 ®12i^ 

11 (3)12 
10'{fi7i,12 
l(i^(W.ll»< 

12 ©12Sf 

ii?4'®ia!-^ 

11 hiCSiVi 
11X@12% 



11X©123^ 
12v,-fr;),14',i' 

13 ©141^ 
13M©14><r 
15 ©lo^i 
13\'©]5'.4 

14 @,15M 
14 ©15 
13 ®13K 



ll.VO-lS 
l]>tf©13>^ 
113^rr?i,13M 
123-^©14 
12'rr©13X 
lli!i©14 
12 ©14>^ 
8\'@11 
9>^®11?^ 
11X©13 
ll.V©13 



18G3 



12.00 f7?14. 90 
13.85© 15, :j;^ 
M.filf?>ilT.(l(; 
13.T2©17.1(; 
]3.3!)(7i:>.lf).2it 
13.87©1.5.7t; 
13.1S©14.4S 
14.21 ©15.09 
13.j4©14.41 
12.51 ©16.01 
1.5.98 ((7>,20. 17 
17.51 ©20.17 



10.60 ©11.56 11. in ©12.23 13.21® 14.27 11.37 @13.25 14.04@16.40 



14. 05 ©16 71 
13.;!'>(r?,15 49 
15.97f,7il7..58 
15,-;9©16.71 
15.S1©17.15 
15.41@17.I4 
16.. 57 (^,17.91 
15.f«(rr,17.02 
14.77 ©,)8.1;i 
15.61 (<(.,17.04 
15.94©17.97 
16.1»@18.1S 



15.44@17.35 



232 



COFFEE. 



Cargo Prices in Gold, ^Hn Bond,''^ for Fair to Prime Plo Coffee in 
New York, from 1846 to 1880 inclusive — (Continued). 



Month. 



January . . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August . . . . 
September . 

October 

November . 
December . 



Average , 



1864 



17.03 @17.35 
16.S6@17.01 
17.99 @,]8.16 
18.16(a),21.64! 
19.93 @,21.33| 
14.91 (((),1.5.85: 

11.66 @,1.5.-3 
13.89@15.67 

15.67 @17.47 
12.S6@1.3.58 
12.99@14.27 
13.68@16.09 



1865 



15.44@17.01 



14.910,16.53 
15.63 @1T.33 
15 @163<r 

14 mi^Vi 

14)^@18 
16>^(rftl8>^ 
].5>4'@.17i^ 
14;^@16 

15 @17K 
15 (cb,\l 

14 @15X 



14.92 ©16.98 



1866 



13>^©15% 
1.3>^®16 
13>i©16X 
13 ©16 
13 ©15>^ 
113^©16 
10>^©14 
12X@15 

13 ©15 
13 @14X 
11%@14 



1867 



11 ©13 
11^©14 

12 ©14 
12 ©14>!^ 
12 ©14 
ll\i@14 
10><i©14 

10ii©14 
93^@135.< 
9i^@13 
9 ©12% 



12.e{i@15.12 10.73@1.3.73 



1868 



8X©11M 
8><©113€ 

9%©11X 
95i@,ll^ 
10 ©12 
9.'^©11X 
9 ©1154' 
8K©1P{ 
8X©11X 
8>i@ll)^ 



9.27 ©11,73 



1869 



8%©11>^ 
9}i©119< 
%((fllM 
93:r@12 
%®12 
9 @.\\}4 
9^@13 
9ir©ll% 
9 ©11% 
9 ©la 
9 ©12 
9 ©11% 



9.21 ©11.81 



Month. 



January 

February . . , 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . . 

October 

November .. 
December... 

Average 



1870 



9i^©12 

103€©12J^ 
10^©12,V 
11 ©131^ 
10?.<@13i^ 

10M'©12J<^ 
954'©12!^ 
10 ©12^ 
10 ©12)^ 
103^©125^ 



1871 



10X©133^ 

10>;©13i^ 

10,5i©13i^ 

105,f©123^ 

10i^©12>^ 

10;^@12 

11 ©12>^ 

12, '4 ©14 
15?i©17H 
14 ©15% 
16%@18 



1873 



16%©18K 

10,%©18'^ 

15%©17 

14X©16 

16>4-@18,'^ 

17>^©19 

16%i©]8 

16 ©18 

15,V©17X 

15;<^©18 

155.V©18y 

16^^18;^ 



1873 



18 ©19% 

18i<@19?i 
173^© 18>^ 
17M©,18>^ 
183i@19M 
18i..r@l9^ 
18>^©l!l% 
21 @22X 
21>^©22% 
20 ©22% 
20 ©22K 
24^®27 



26 ©28 
23 ©25 
22%©24% 
19%©22i^ 
17^(5 20 
19j<@21% 
19%©21% 
175;^ ©20 
16?4©20 
18 ©201^ 
18 ©20 
17%©19X 



1875 



18%©19% 
17%©19 
15% ©17% 
17^®19 
17 ©18% 
17 ©18% 
18X©19% 
19-4 ©20>^ 
20)4®21!< 
20 ®213i 
18%©20 
18J^©19>^ 



11.88@12.56 12.02©13.98 15.60@17.96 19.40@21.02 19.71 ©21.98 18.17@19.63 



Month. 


1876 


1877 


1878 


1879, 


1880 




18 ©19^ 
16,i^©18% 
17>4'@18% 
173^®19 
17%®18>^ 
16% ©18 
17 ©18% 
16>^©17% 

17% ©19 
18%©19X 
17% ©19 


20 ©21% 
19i^ra21 
19%©20% 
183^ ©,20 
19 ©203^ 
19%©20% 
19%©,20% 
19 ©20% 
16 ©16% 
16 ©16 ^r 
15 ©15% 
15%@15;^ 


17 ©18% 

16%©18 

15%©17 

15%©17 

16 ©17% 

153^©17% 

15;<©17 

16 ©17>^ 

16)^r-7l8 

15%©18 

14>^©16% 

14 ©16 


14J^@16% 
14 ©15% 
ViK<(()U)i 
13%@15 
13 ©14% 
13%©14% 
13%©14M 
13>;@14% 


15>i$'©17 




14%@16X 




l'l%©16;<f 




14 ©16 


May 


14X®15% 




14%@I5% 


July 


14% ©16 


August 


15 ©16?i 




1.3i^©16 15 ©17 




15>^®17X 
16 ©18 
15>^®17% 


13%©] 6 




13%©15 




11%©14 








17.25 ©18.71 


18.04@19 


15.61 ©17.42 


14.04 ©15.69 


14.23 ©16.02 









STATISTICAL TABLES. 



233 



o 
oo 



o 

00 

oo 



W 
o 



o 
Q 

1-5 

O 

w 
o 

s 



i-1 



I I I 



*r* *» ^ 

I I I 



ooo 



S> III 



I I I 



CO iO o o 

GO «■< T^ OT 



Oi CTITIT* 






CO O-.' CO 






■^ -r -T 



occooo 

I I I 









I tot- 



7TT 



1^ <«Mi* 



CO re CO 






^((NS* 



I I I 

(Oco;o 



CO CO CO 



CO CO CD o 






iS5S5 



00 moo 



I I I 

ip lO o 



CO «--■ 
CO 00 CO 



iC U3 lO 

I I I 
lO o o 



C? CO OQ 

(WW w 



^ CO-l"-^ 

§5 :i;i::^ 






I I I 



o ■^ -S" 

CO CO CO 

lojseo 



COCQ« 



CO MOO 

I I r 

lOlOO 



O i0 05 

•^ CO CO 

I r I 



:^ 



cocoeo 

I r I 



o ot- 
inifflo 

(NIK W 



^:<^ 



O <N(N « 

o' )x; 

(N in m 



oin lo 
I I I 



I I I 



S is; 



I I I 

o o o 



O III 

o o«- 



I I I 

■9'iai' 



1 I I 
in -5'in 



J3 ^V 



^ TH T-l ^H 

lo III 

ITS iO O 



' ' ' 

S :s;iR;;s: 

lO O lO 



I I I 

:^ 






5 7^7 

;5 :s; 



;5 :«;::^>:; 



^^ r-i »H r-4 



I I I 
in lO to 



i,t ^^x 



^ I- COOO 

'"• 7 7 7 

lO O lO" 



■S 1-IOO .H 



>>>>>> 




£■£•£? 










« 






> 






< 








'^ i-s-j 




P^F^Fh 



C3 c3 cS 



234 



COFFEE. 






o 

CO 
CO 



o 

H 
GO 



o 



3 
'A 



O 






I I I 

coo? G^ 



I I I 



I I I 

W r-. .-. 



L- (,:(?<« 



I I I 
o c* ^i C( 

^ I.I 



;h c^<W'7* 



05 C^ ?3 TO 






ccastc 
epcoM 



iO toco 



c- '.-.' CO 

I I I 
cccoco 



OT C» (N C* 



OVCJIN 



I I I 



I I I 

CO C5 o; 



c; o o 

I I I 



CO ^ x> 



I I I 

so So 



^ 7' 



U2 lA lA 









iO ff* G-* (?< 

gj 'i;' 

in »n iO 






-«j< 'rt' rji 
I I t 



t-OO! 



COCO CO 



(T) 5-! CO 

I I r 

at m I 



T-t ^ in in 



3 ^t:^ 



^^^ 



CO TfT* 



»if;X 



(O C^ Ot « 



C(IOS< 
C( Q* T! 



S« COTli ro 
as ci ff) (TJ 



. . int-t- 

S> .11 



cc in in 
c< (?< s^ 



05 in in o 



b T- 



V. (NIC 10 
^ cococo 



rH if? Xf3 in 



t2 Jititi 



t- o d • 



C!00 



10 10 'I' 

cor.- CO 
I I I 



ci\ t- «C CO 

~ TT'V 



\« irj «j itj 

S III 



7-100 u 



•^' -. -3 -^ 



Uj be bo 
c c 3 



OJ tj Q> 

ess 

C OJ 01 

O O <11 
COM CO 



>» > > 

000 



o < 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



235 



t-- C-* <rt (?* 



w -^ .-rco 






ifi!^^ 



lo '?'"'■•': 



at tNOtT* 



X^ 



55 <w WW 



IN — " 
(?»(?> (N 



00 «■« <r»K 



x:^ 



^^ 



«? SS2=5S 



:s;is; 



O <N IN C* 



— CICON 






CO 1-1 r-t — 

,-1 <r( (?< T) 



isii^^-;^ 



:«;-':; :j^ 



W -T -^ 
I I I 

IN MM 
(N T<(N 



CO CC CO CO 



5> III 



^:s; 



:^:x;:<^ 



v_„ cv ly* vV ;o *''' ^'V - • 

jf? a ct ^i ' iO (N c-> c» 
;;ij^ I r I I • 111 



o C* ^* ff* 



»o »Ci lO 
(NS-(5< 
I I I 

■VT — 



I I I 

X' 



i 'i 'i 



CO ^0)03 



;:; (n<nin 



I J I 



^ <n5» <N 



:o c< ■Nc* 



loirs'* 



! lOin 
(55 « 



"TCOIN 
C? CO CO 

I I r 



total— 

(?* T< (N 

r I I 

05 INS* 



CO l-CCX) 
CO IN ^ O* 



to (NiNiN 

Ci IN IN C* 

§ is; ' :«; 



to CT T» IN 
rl INO(IN 



5! ;«; 



,-( INff>C( 



35 IN iNIN 



IN o5 W 

I I I 



XiR; 



■^ Tf -T 



XX 



0?CC CO 
IN IN IN 



O — 5>» 
(NININ 



cr. Oic: 



riOrl 
(N INQ* 



IN INWIN 
05 IT* C< « 



:x;i^is; 

(N NIN 
IN (NN 



5! IN 53 



::«;:»; if^ 



<N — rt: 



i-i(N IN 
ININ IN 

I I r 



(N INUJiN 
C5 IN I^!!N 
O ' ' ' 

IN ^\ 

OO — 
IN N(N 



IN N -N 
(NN IN 



'O IN W 0» IN 
■O (N IN U! 05 



T-iO O "l-l 



r-iO = 



(5 ^, 



C fl = 

C3 Ca C3 



>>>>>. 

s J^)^ 



T-« (?« 


u 




0) 0) 0) 

C C C 


^ 


>.>-.>> 


P 3 3 




l-s'^|-5 




T-5 T 






236 



COFFEE. 



^ 
<© 
^ 



Si 



00 



o 

H 
00 
GO 



o 



■W 

o 
O 

<1 

1-5 

O 

w 
o 






I I I 

Tf CC CO 



CC Ifl iO 

I I I 



cv w c^ 
I I I 



^:^ 



I I I 

CO CO cc 



wco -^ 



I I r 



^:s; 



Oi ,HrHr-l 



I J I 

coco CO 



oo mm JO 



I I I I S 



CO "^ T m 



I I I 

CCCO CO 

m loco 
I I I 

aiciat 



mm m 

(?* <7^ <?< 

I I I 



CO CO CO 
^^ ' 

(NOT S< 



e« 0000^ 



CO ci (N c« 



(NINCO 
(NININ 



x:^ 



m a^oioi 



rl> III 






J I I 

ocyiN 



Ji III 

lO iO ■^ 






I I I 



CO 2;35Qo 



CO (NirJ<N 



:^:^ 



ir*s>((N 



CO I* m m 

CO O! WCT 



COOOO) 

«0 50 m 
<Nir<i?i 



t— I CO CO CO 



t- CJrHTH 



cr. O: T-i 

T-lT-l(N 



t= m m 






OD wroco 



CO CO CO CO 



x^ 



.ti r^O* ^ 



r^Ot S-( •*-< 












.O ^ J3 


Fi 


s 


a 














p. a 0. 




'ii 


a> 



> > t» 

O 3 O 



f3 J2 ^ J3 

s s s a 



flflfl 



< < 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



237 



TABLE YI. 
Comparative Monthly and Yearly Prices for Three Years. 



January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Auu;ust 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Average for year 



BRAZTii — Fair to Prime Cargoes. 
Average for the Month. 



1880 



$10 10% 
15 50 

15 my^ 

15 00 
15 08X 
15 04 
15 50 

15 83 

16 10% 
14 46 
13 96 
13 13 



$15 13 



1879 



$15 43 
14 79'/, 
14 16% 
14 30^'« 
13 58X 

13 75 

14 00 
14 04 
14 70 
10 33 
16 91 
10 ZIH 



$14 85>^ 



1878 



$17 87 
17 08 
16 54 

16 37 

17 00 
10 26 
16 12 

16 70 

17 16 
16 50 
15 54 
15 04 



$16 51 



Maracaibo and Lagdatba. 
Average for the Month. 



1880 



$15 33% 
16 04 
16 03X 
16 633^ 
15 00 
14 75 

14 95V8 

15 62i< 
15 87 li 
15 04 
14 00 
13 45V, 



$15 53Vn 



1879 



$15 17 
15 58X 
14 66% 
14 00 

14 00 
13 91 
13 75 
13 75 
13 75 

15 08 

16 58 
16 71 



$14 70 



1878 



^7 25 
16 33 
15 75 
15 .50 
15 33 
15 .50 
15 33 

14 91 

15 35 
15 50 
14 75 
14 83 



$15 53 



St. Dominoo. 
Average for the month. 



Java. 
Average for the Month, 



1880 



January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Average for vear 



$13 371^ 

12 83X 

13 00 
13 00 
13 00 
13 41% 
13 25 
13 35 

12 25 

13 00 
11 .50 
11 16% 



$12 63.W 



1879 



$11 00 
10 75 
10 75 

10 75 

11 25 
11 25 
11 25 
11 35 
11 25 
11 91 
14 50 
14 41 



1878 



1880 



$15 83 
14 37 
13 91 
13 50 
13 20 
13 03 
13 33 
13 75 
12 83 
12 .50 
12 50 
11 75 



$11 69 I $13 34 



$23 87K 
23 75 
23 50 
23 50 
21 66% 
20 75 

20 66% 

21 83X 
23 00 
21 66% 
20 333^ 
18 33% 



.';23 63'/i2 



1879 



1878 



$23 25 
24 25 

23 91% 

24 25 
24 25 
24 25 
24 25 
24 00 

23 58 

24 50 
24 79 
24 371-^ 



$22 10 
21 50 
21 16 
21 00 
21 25 
21 06 

23 50 
24 

24 37 
33 .58 
23 27 
23 25 



$24 14 



J33 48 



TABLE YIL 

Receipts of Sundry Kinds of Coffee, not enumerated specifically^ 
into the United States (^Atlantic Coast), 1866 to 1880, inclusive. 



Tear. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Bags. 


Tons. 


1806 


8,401 
16,859 
16,006 
22,433 
10,.569 
37,675 
73,853 
70,605 


633 

1.053 
1,024 
1,173 
791 
2,337 
4,703 
4,489 


1874 


121,479 
40,977 
47,707 
71,507 
64,884 
98,609 

109,173 


6,869 
2,. 567 


1807 


1875 


1808 


1876 


3,221 


1809 


1877 


4,877 
4,246 
7 239 


1870 


1878 


1871 


1S79 


1873 


1880 


6,967 


1873 







Average, 15 years (1866 to 1880) .54,500 bags, 3, 

Average, 10 years (1871 to 1880) 73,659 " 4, 



486 tons. 
51 " 



238 



COFFEE. 

TABLE YIII. 



Circular Estimating and Proclaiming, in United States Money of 
Account, the Values of the Standard Coins in Circidatio7i of 
the Various Nations of the World. 



:t, J 

Mint, V 
iry 1, 1881. j 



1881. 
Department No. 1. Teeasitrt Department, 

Secretary's Office. Bureau of the 

Washington, D. C, January : 
Hon. John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury: 

Sib — In pursuance of the provisions of Section 3,564 of the Revised Statutes of the Uniteil 
States, I have estimateci the vahies of the standard coins in circulation of the various nations of the 
world, and submit the same in the accompanying table. Very respectfully, 

Horatio C. 'Cxi'&cnLv.T), Director of the Mint. 



Country. 


Monetary Unit. 


Standard. 


Value in 
U. S. 
Money. 


Standard Coin. 




Florin 


Silver 

Gold and silver. 
Silver 


40.7 
19.3 
82.3 
54.0 

§1 00 
91.2 
9;i2 
20.8 
82.3 
0-1.9 
19.3 
4 te.Oi 
19.3 
23.8 
39 
19.3 
88.8 

1 00 

89.4 

40.2 
20.8 
82.3 
1 08 

6.-5.8 
1 00 

19.3 

26.8 
19.3 

74.3 
04.4 

82.3 
19.3 








6. 10, and 20 francs. 




Boliviano 


Boliviano. 




Milreisof lOOOreis. 
Dollar 


Gold 




British Possessions 
in N. A 


Gold 




Chili 




Gold and silver. 
Gold and silver. 
Gold 


Condor, doubloon, and e.scudo. 


Cuba 




*/i6t '-i- ^ii X, and 1 doubloon. 






10 and 20 crowns. 






Silver 


Peso. 


Egypt 




Gold 


6. 10, 25. 50, and 100 piasters. 




Franc 


Gold and silver. 
Gold 


5, 10, and 20 francs. 




Pound sterling 


^ Bovereiprn and sovereign. 




Gold and silver. 
Gold 


5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 drachmas. 






5, 10, and 20 marks. 




Rupee of 16 annas. 


Silver 




Italy 


Gold and silver. 
Silver 


5, 10, 20, 60, and 100 lire. 




yen 


1, 2, 5, lU, and 20 yen, gold, and 




Dollar 


Gold 


silver yen. 




Dollar 


Silver 


Peso or dollar, 5, 10, 25, and 50 


Netherlands 


Florin 


Gold and silver. 
Gold 


centavoB. 






10 and 20 crowns. 


Peru . . . . 


Sol 


Silver 


Sol. 




Milreisof ioOOreis. 
Rouble of 100 co- 


Gold 


2, 5, and 10 milreis. 




Silver 






J^, }4, and 1 rouble. 




Dollar 

Peseta of 100 cen- 


Gold 






Gold and silver. 
Gold 






5, 10, 20. 50, and 100 pesetas. 






10 and 20 crowns. 


Switzerland 

Tripoli 


Franc 

Mahbub of 20 pias- 
ters 


Gold and silver. 
Silver 


5, 10, and 20 francs. 






Turkey. . 


Gold 


25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters. 


United States of 


Peso 


Silver 


Peso. 




Bolivar 


Gold and silver. 


5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 Bolivar. 









Treasury Department, Washington, D. C, January 1, 1881, 
The foregoing estimation, made by the Director of the Mint, of the value of the foreign coins 
above mentioned, I hereby proclaim to be the values of such coins expressed in the money of account 
of the United States, and to be taken in estimating the valiii's of all foreign mercnandise, made out 
in any of said currencies, imported on or after January 1, 1881. 

John Sherman, Secretai-y of the Treasury. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



239 






a 

c3 •• 

c '-' 

O c 

05 3 
« fl 
O t-5 

>^ f^ 



-« <=> 

tic.2 

si 

Pi 73 

^ q 

(SO 

C3M 

OS 01 

.2 <» 

y 



<p 



11 



(P TO 

a '^ 

.Ho 
.2 .2 

•^ to 



.cl 
H 







:s' 




J*? 


is? 


i^f 




:<? 


:3f 


\" 


V(0 


V" 




VB 




;^ 


^'. 














CO 






%i 


>o 


lO 






















^ 














































r^ 


tH 


rH 






rH 




1" 




u -G 0) 


:.? 


VO 


:*• 


y 


' 






„» 




\=» 


i:' 


H? 




V^ 




ifi; 


is; 




§.£fS 










lO 




at 


C2 




CO 




O 


05 






<N 












































rH 








rH 


T-i 


rH 


I— 1 


rH 


r^ 


rH 


rH 


■>— ' 


rH 


rH 


TH 




s 
^ 




nt* 




:*• 


«t 


l:^ 


>-f 




rt\ 


„=f 


^ 


i? 


n" 


iff 




o" 


is; 








2? 


CO 




s; 


cc 


S 


^ 


O 


TO 


<N 


at 


lO 


O 


O 


'S 


.?■ 


g 


rH 




e< 






' 






"rH 


rH 


rH 


^ 




*.' 








V 


:»? 


i<? 


^T" 


:«• 


:>? 






;,» 


:«• 


^? 


"\ 


;» 


ifi 


^? 




:^ 




CO 


















Ol 




00 






o 












ft 






(N 


■^ 


TO 




TO 
tH 




^ 


o 


s 


T~* 




^ 


TH 






rH 


si 


:^^ 






N? 


i? 


ip 




N? 


^ 


iR 


:^ 


:*: 


i^ 


n\ 


is 


^ 


n^ 


^ 


S 




S 












S 


TO 


et 


■o" 


o 




CO 




CO 




















rH 


















a 






a 


^ 




"V 






r^ 




rH 


rH 


^ 












£ 


' 


' 




^ 


^- 


^^ 


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240 



COFFEE. 



TABLE X. — Cost of Exchange iisr Rio de Jaisteieo. 

Comparative Table, shoioing Lowest and Highest Mates of Exchange 
from 1850 to 1879, inclusive — in Hio de Janeiro — from Official 

Quotatio7is. 





London. 


Paris. 


Hamburg. 




London. 


Paris. 


Hamburg. 








« o 0) •2 


bo 

a 




Reis 
nco. 
Reis 
ark. 


Tear. 




2 


1 oa 1 S 


Tear. 


"S .5 


a 


1^ 1 3 






"3 


rior 1873 
r. Mark 
nee 1873 
r. Reich 




02 5 




rior 1873 
r. Mark 1 
nee 1873 
r. ReichE 




fM 


rt 


P, "-co " 




fe 


« 


fi»'M» 


1850 


265^-31 


312-^348 


565-648 


1865.... 


223^-273^ 


355-415 


675-775 


1851 


27^i-31 


30.S-350 


570-648 


1866.... 


22 -26 


872-430 


700-800 


1852 


26Ji-28i^ 


344-S60 


63U-665 


1867.... 


19Ji-24^^ 


392-4!- 


740-875 


1853 


27;^-2'.>X 


S2S-355 


COO-655 


1868.... 


14 -20 


482-655 


890-1,120 


1854 


26^-285^ 


340-:i73 


640-(ir5 


1869.... 


18 -20 


480-525 


900-965 


1855 


27 -28^ 


345-;i60 


64U-6(;0 


1670.... 


19;e-24X 


4C0-48O 


742-890 


1856 


26%-28^ 


341-;354 


64.5-662 


! 1871.... 


22 -25% 


374-420 


708-772 


1857 


23J^-28 


34;^i65 


C48-695 


1872.... 


24 -26 )i 


858-388 


6^5-735 


1858 


223i-27 


358-420 


675-720 


1873.... 


25)^-27 


350-376 


444-451 


185!) 


233^-26% 


360-415 


670-800 


1874.... 


24?^-5;634; 


857-081 


416-470 


1860 


24J^-273^ 


35;i-3!«) 


670-740 


1875.... 


26,'i-28% 


:- 39-360 


436-444 


1861 


24>:i--263i 


S56-3!)5 


680-7.^0 


1876.... 


23Ji-26'!i 


357-401 


447-495 


1862 


245^-27?^ 


345-:^80 


657-710 


1877.... 


^i -253^ 


;:i7'.M16 


467-498 


1863 


26J^-27% 


341-366 


646-6(6 


1878.... 


21ir-24?s 


393-448 


487-519 


1864 


25?i-27% 


343-370 


654-685 


1879.... 


19>»-23>i 


411-495 


514-604 



TABLE XL — The "World's Production of Coffee. 

(From Ceylon Directory.) 



Countries. 



Brazil (including exports from Rio, Santo: 
Bahia, Pernambuco, and Ceara) 

Java and Sumatra 

Ceylon 

India 

Central America (between United States and 
Venezuela) 

Venezuela. Peru, Bolivia, and Guianas 

Hay ti or San Domingo 

Cuba and Porto Rico 

West Indies . . 

Arabia, Madagascar, Mauritius, Rdunion, Abys- 
synia, Mozambique, and north-east coast of 
Africa 

Natal 

Liberia and West Coast from Loanda to Cape de 
Verde Islands, including Lagos, Sierra Leone. 
Gambia, Gold Coast, Elniina, St. Thomas, 
St. Helena, etc., etc 

Man'lla, Celebes, and rest of Eastern Archi- 
pelago and Australia 

Sandwich Islands and rest of Pacific Isles, in- 
cluding Fiji and New Caledonia 



Total 4,291,300 



Estimated 
Area under 
Cultivation. 



Acres. 

1,-500,000 

1,200,000 

268,000 

150.000 

210,000 
220,000 
200.000 
130.000 
40,000 



220.000 
800 



100,000 
45,000 
12,500 



Present 
Maximum 
Export of 

Coffee. 



Tons. 

240,000 
90,000 
50,000 
25,000 

40,000 
40.000 
28.000 
17 000 
5,300 



■.500 
■ 50 



4,530 
5,000 
1,200 



55.i.550 



Estimated 
Local Con- 
sumption. 



Tons. 

60,000 

20,000 

5,000 

7,000 

5.000 
8,000 
7,000 
8.000 
3,600 



22,500 
50 



10,000 
3,000 
1,000 



160,050 



Total 
Maximum 
Production- 



Tons, 

300,000 
110,000 
55.000 
32,000 

45,000 
48,000 
35,000 
25.000 
8,800 



30.000 
100 



14,500 
8,000 
2.200 



713.600 



The v.alue of the world's production of coflEee (over 14,000,000 cwts.) would be about 50,000,000 
pounds sterling in the wholesale markets. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



241 



TABLE XII. — The "World's Consumption of Coffek. 

(From the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1877-78.) 



France 

Belgium 

Switzei laud 

Russia, European. . . . 

Sweden 

Norway 

Denmark 

Holland 

Hamburg (Germany). 

Austria (1871) 

Greece 

Italy (1871) 

United Kingdom 

United States 



Total Imports of 

Coffee for 

Consumption. 



Pounds. 

98,635,000 
49,771,000 
18,779,500 
14,740,920 
26,555,213 
17,636,080 
26,035,053 
72,395,800 

178,715,936 

76,876,576 

2,131,367 

28,511,560 

32,330,928 

293,293,833 



Average 
Per Head. 



Increase in 
Ton Year.^. 



"2.83 
3.50 
9.00 



Total 936,409,365 lbs., or 8i millions cwt. , 

425,000 tons, excluding home consumption in producing countries. 

The Ceylon Directory estimates the world's consumption (usual, not maxi- 
mum) as follows : 

Tons. 

Continent of Europe 300,000 

United States and Canada 140,000 

Mexico, Central America, and the West Indian Islands. . . . 28,000 

Brazil and the rest of South America 86,500 

Asia, including Java and the Eastern Archipelago 76,000 

Africa * 35,000 

United Kingdom 15,000 

Australasia and Pacific Isles 6,000 

Total 686,500 

This is the average in a year of abundant production. In 1820 the world's 
consumption of coffee was not more than 150,000 tons. 

TABLE XIIL 

Prof. Van Den Berg's Estimate of the Coffee Production of the Wliole World. 



Countries. 


1855 


1865 


1879 


Asia 


Kilos. 

107,650,000 

4,000,000 

185,715,000 

3,500,000 

29,300,000 


Kilos. 

140,560,000 

4,000.000 

231,000,000 

9,050,000 

36,800,000 

300,000 


Kilos. 

151,000,000 


Africa 


4,000,000 


South America 


261,390 COO 


Central America 


32 500 000 


West Indies 


41,800,000 


Australasia 


150,000 






Total 


330,165,000 
324,950 tons. 


421,950,000 
415,285 tons. 


490,840,000 




483,087 tons. 



* Cape Colony has imported from Rio as much as 60,000 cwt. of coffee ia one year. Algeria, at 
the other end of the Continent, also imports 60,000 cx^i;. — Comfilebs. 

16 



242 COFFEE. 



TABLE XllL— Continued. 

MacCuUoch's " Commercial Dictionary," ed. 1854, estimates the coffee pro- 
duction of the whole world, about 1853, as follows : 

Tons. 

Mocha, Hodeida, and other parts of Arabia 8,000 

Java 62, 000 

Sumatra and remaining Archipelago 8,000 

Brazil and remainder of South America 110,000 

Hayti 15,000 

Cuba and Porto Rico 17,000 

British West Indies 2,000 

Ceylon and British India 17,000 

Netherlands West Indies 5,000 

French West Indies and Bourbon 7,000 

Total 251,000 tons, or fully 255,000,000 kilos. 

Messrs. Jacobson, of Rotterdam, estimated September 5, 1860 : 

Half kilos. 

Bra7.il 324,000,000 

Netherlands India 144,000,000 

Ceylon 00,000,000 

St. Domingo 50,000,000 

Venezuela and Costa Rica 30,000,000 

Manilla, Mocha, and British India 25,000,000 

Cuba, Porto Hico 15,000,000 

Jamaica and remaining West Indies ; . . . 12,()( 0.000 

Total, 000,000,000 half-kilos, or ^30,000,000 kilos, or 324,787 tons. 

And lastly, the present coffee production is noted in Prof. Dr. X. von Neu- 
mann Spallai-t's " Ueber&ichten ixber Production, Verkehr uud Handel," ed. 1878, 

p. 92, as follows : 

Zol. Centners. 

Brazil 4,800,000 

Netherlands India 2,100,000 

Ceylon l,01fi.000 

Hayti 020,000 

Venezuela 598,000 

British India 307,300 

Porto Rico 234,000 

Costa Rica ' 223,500 

Guatemala 190,800 

Colombia 140,000 

San Salvador 74,300 

Philippines ; 72.500 

Aden (Arabia) 63,700 

Straits Settlements 4(:!.100 

French Possessions in America and Africa 24,500 

Nicaragua 15,000 

Ecuador ll.nOO 

Cuba 10,800 

Soudan 10,000 

St. Domingo 4.400 

Liberia 1 ,500 

Hawaii ' 1,400 

Total, 10,564,800 Zoll. centners, or 528,240,000 kilos, or 519,898 
tons. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



243 



TABLE XIY. 



Prof. Van Den Berg estimated, in 1879, the consumption of coffee in the non- 
coffee producing countries to be as follows : 



Norway 

Sweden 

Denmark 

Russia 

England 

Netherlands. . . . 

Belgium 

Germany 

Axistria-Hungary 
Switzerland .... 

France 

Italy 

Spain , 

Portugal 

Greece 

Turkey 



7, 

9, 

4, 

7, 

14, 

31, 

22, 

90 

37 

8, 

50, 

12. 

2, 
1, 

1, 
20, 



250,000 
900,000 
500,000 
025,000 
970,000 
250,000 
110,000 
320,000 
250,061) 
i'.-lO.ODO 
000,000 
805,000 
750,000 
500,000 
000,000 
000,000 



Per 
Head, 
Kilos. 



3.96 

2.27 

2.37 

0.10^ 

0.45 

8.12 

4.14 

2.32 

1. 

3.02 

1.38 

0.47 

0.16 

0.34' 

0.75 



Countries. 



United States .... 

Canada 

Argentine RepuLlic 

Chili, Peru, Uru- 
guay, etc 

Cape Colony 

Natal 

Algiers 

Australia,New Zea- 
land 

Persia 

British India 

Siam, China, Japan, 
etc 



Total Kilos, 



147,000,000 

200,000 

1,330,000 

1,000,000 

3,000.000 

700.000 

2,150,000 

1,000,000 
1,000.000 
1,000,000 

pro mem. 

489,070,000 



Per 
Head, 
Kilos. 



3.75 
0.26 
0.76 



3.50 
2.00 



or 481,345 tons, against a production, as estimated above, of 490,840,000 kilos, 
or 483,087 tons. 

The increased production of coffee in the last years thus scarcely keeps pace 
with the increased consumption, and a serious failure of the crops must immedi- 
ately cause a deficiency that would occasion a considerable rise in prices. 

But, on the other hand, we should not lose sight of the fact that the con"- 
sumption can suddenly decline very considerably through fiscal measures, and 
with the present state of affairs in Europe it would not be advisable to look 
upon this eventuality too slightingly. 

A diminished consumption must, in its turn, necessarily lower the prices of 
this article, and for Netherlands, " that has made her financial prosperity wholly 
dependent on the prices of coffee, and where the rise or fall of a single cent in 
the prices of coffee either enriches or impoverishes the exchequer by a million" 
(D. C. Steijn Parvc : "Overzicht van het Handelsverkeer tusschen Nederland en 
Engeland," p. 102 — " Review of the Commercial Relations between Netherlands 
and England "), it is therefore of great importance that the sale of coffee should 
everywhere remain as free and unobstructed as possible, in order that the con- 
sumption may increase uninterruptedly in the same proportion as the production 
will, by degrees, probably develop itself. 

Her own interests shouM prompt Netherlands to set the example to other 
countries in this matter ; and a prudent policy seems also to require that the 
system should be gradually abandoned that makes it almost an impossibility 
for the stranger to procure the coffee he requires for his own consumption at the 
place of production itself. 

N. P. VAN DEN BERG. 

Batavia, November, 1879, 



244 



COFFEE. 



TABLE XY. 

Stock of Coffee m the Principal Depots of Europe, January 1, 1842, 
to 1881, inclusive. 



Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


1842 


49,900 


1856 


51,600 


1869 


102,358 


1843 


63,650 


1857 


72,000 


1870 


125,896 


1844 


70,750 


1858 


96,650 


1871 


83,292 


1845 


74,000 


1859 


61,600 


1872 


82,186 


1846 


68,350 


1860 


53,200 


1873 


55,955 


1847 


68,650 


1861 


46,000 


1874 


62,576 


1848 


63,950 


1863 


62,800 


1875 


68,847 


1849 


60,900 


1863 


56,000 


1876 


105,993 


1850 


50,500 


1864 


64,000 


1877 


72,693 


1851 


47,700 


1865 


57,700 


1878 


105,580 


1852 


50,700 


1866 


57,400 


1879 


87,978 


1853 


56,450 


1867 


56,500 


1880 


93,131 


1854 


59,100 


1868 


85,270 


1881 


116,981 


1855 


54,700 











TABLE XYL 
Comparative Statement of Imports^ 1850 to 1880, inlcusive. 



Year. 


Holland. 


Hamburg. 


England. 


United States. 


1850 


Millions lbs. 
85 
106 
156 
118 
113 
143 
166 
136 
139 
122 
124 
184 
146 
127 
150 
118 
146 
1.50 
151 
133 
190 
181 
102 
1.58 
143 
183 
125 
189 
151 
1.55 
185 


Millions lbs. 

63 

81 

73 

88 

87 

94 

76 

93 

67 

78 

77 
100 

80 

85 

69 
101 

80 
104 
133 
146 

88 
144 
131 
137 
1.50 
181 
175 
188 
179 
188 
197 


MUlions lbs. 

46 

46 

48 

48 

54 

53 

47 

46 

47 

52 

64 

66 

73 

91 

84 
100 
111 
114 
176 
173 
180 
192 
166 
184 
157 
178 
153 
180 
142 
180 
174 


Millions lbs. 
145 


1851 


153 


18.52 


194 


1853 


199 


1&54 


163 


1855 


191 


1856 


236 


1857 


241 


1858 


189 


1859 


264 


1860 


203 


ISfll 


184 


1862 


123 


1863 . 


80 


1864 


132 


1865 


106 


1866 


181 


1867 


187 


1868 


249 


1869 


254 


1870 


235 


1871 


318 


1872 


299 


1873 


293 


1874 


2S5 


1875 


318 


1876 


340 


1877 


332 


1878 


310 


1879 


378 


1880 


447 







STATISTICAL TABLES. 



245 



TABLE XVII. 



Consumption in the German Zollverein, 1836 to 1880, inclusive. 



Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons, 


Year. 


Tons. 


1836 


26,653 


1851 


45,287 


1866 


73,247 


1837 


36,574 


1852 


47,259 


1867 


76,961 


1838 


28,364 


1853 


47,295 


1868 


84,623 


1839 


28,515 


1854 


55,805 


1869 


81 .368 


18-10 


33,963 


1855 


61,234 


1870 


98,350 


1841 


34,806 


1856 


57,517 


1871 


86,400 


1843 


35,698 


1857 


61,035 


1873 


93,585 


1843 


38,234 


1858 


67,131 


1873 


97,775 


1844 


38,789 


1859 


63,260 


1874 


90,033 


1845 


41,334 


1860 


65,464 


1875 


100,613 


184G 


40,945 


1861 


73,478 


1876 


106,398 


1847 


45,761 


1862 


67,414 


1877 


95.779 


1848 


40,954 


1863 


66.804 


1878 


99,384 


1849 


46,493 


1864 


69,943 


1879 


112,594 


1850 


36,687 


1865 


72,765 


1880 


94,333 



TABLE XYIIL 



Consumption of Coffee in France, 1832 to 1880, inclusive. 



Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Tons. 


1833 


10,216 


1849 


17,780 


1865 


43,633 


1833 


9,185 


1850 


15,029 


1866 


43,910 


1834 


10,707 


1851 


18,271 


1867 


47,365 


1835 


10,118 


1852 


31,218 


1868 


53.303 


1836 


11,002 


' 1853 


19,548 


1869 


50,337 


1837 


12,279 


1854 


21,316 


1870 


72,665 


1838 


11.886 


1855 


2(!,228 


1871 


40,155 


1839 


11,886 


[ 1850 


23,790 


1873 


16,708 


1840 


14,145 


1 1857 


27.505 


1873 


44.834 


1841 


12,678 


' 1858 


27,701 


1874 


38,706 


1842 


14,833 


I 1859 


29,764 


1875 


48,013 


1843 


14,145 


1860 


33,694 


1876 


53.487 


1844 


15,228 


1861 


36,935 


1877 


47,810 


1845 


15,619 


' 1863 


37,133 


1878...,..v 


^ 54,105 


1846 


16,503 


' 1863 


38,900 


1879.. 


56,835 


1847 


16,503 


1864 


39,784 


1880 


57,723 


1848 


14,538 











24G 



COFFEE. 



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c 




2Q 




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<» 








•<» 








ts 




<» 




•s 




s 




o 




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'^ 




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«« 




o 






XI 


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t— 1 


S •'* 


X 


« § 


w 




h-1 


•^ •<!* 


M 


'^ ^ 


<1 


<43 00 


H 


o ■"• 









8 



• t- lo oi 00 £^ o — ' lo 10 cj o CO CO ~ t^ c- o lo CO lo o 15 c~ ira 

£Cit-Ort<O-^WO00i-it-C^00lC-0OG0i-iC5O00l0O<C 

£ oi ■^o oo" o-' (>j i-T i-T o' T-<' i-T to cT o crJ cc zt lo o' ai {> c2 i-T '^ o 
oa)Oj'^i>oooo{> — ooo'*o}'-iCJc;-^OGOo}:oGO.-HTt<c5 

p iO X W <-- CO — ■ 00 i> CJ 00 00 O "* ■<* •<* '-"^t- CJ_0^10 0_CO 05 co__ 
t-Tt-To'T t-Tt-T jo t^ t^ t-i i-Tr-H Cvfc^ 'S' 



ciowcooooosi>05c»oioo««t^«OTi<t-Lt!?o«coso« 

OOC/S'OOCO'^M-rtOOJOOCSOi-iOCQCOi— lO^COTflOOSS 
K T- lO CJ Oi » 00 00 O CO to C5^ CO^ =? O Tt<^0 O O -<t t-^^_,0D_'30__O_ 

"c •^'ic'i-f'crJC C^J 00 f-'oo' -^'o'lo'co' t-'t-''r-')o' ■^' -*' o't-'w '-'co" 

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OOOOGOCOOOOOQOQOOOQOOOGOOOGOOOQOQOOOOOOOOOCOOOOO 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



247 



TABLE XX. 

Quantities and Values of Imported Tea and Coffee Retained in the 
United States for Consumption, and the Estimated Consumption 
per Capita of Popidation, during the Years 1830, 1840, and from 
1850 to 1881 inclusive. 





Tea. 




Coffee. 




Year Ended 


Retained for Home Consump- 
tion. 


2!« 


Retained for Home Consump- 
tion. 




September 30— 
1830 


Pounds. 
6,873,091 
16,883,099 

28,199,591 
13,.504,774 
25,587,008 
19,291,884 
19,230,113 
19,703,593 
18,181,470 
16,500,285 
28,706,577 
23,119,289 
20,320,928 
21,010,607 
33,336,777 
27,021,t40 
35,851,022 
16,849,189 
41,511,448 
39,1379,574 
35,62.5.863 
40,810,0:35 
42,540,471 
44,894,945 
59,369,(i02 
63,754,940 
54,141,3.53 
63,291.304 
61,100,245 
50,838,175 
6:3,133,188 
58,891,535 
69,894,769 
79,130,849 


Dollars. 

1,5:32,211 

4,007,144 

3,982,054 

3,452,496 

5,927,143 

7,024,5:36 

4,933,5.53 

4,937,610 

5,250,003 

4,:344,903 

5,877,387 

4,927,178 

0,930,134 

5,420,053 

5,906,758 

6,981,049 

9,977,924 

3,043,933 

10,510,296 

12,215,6:37 

10,:399,809 

13,740,269 

12,489,217 

15,3:34,787 

21,684,107 

24, Oil,. 529 

20,240,378 

21,9.59,518 

18,649,592 

15,.504,901 

14,92:3,024 

14,21.5,526 

1 8,983,3*38 

20,235,418 


Pounds. 
0..53 
0.99 

1.23 

0.57 

1.03 

0.75 

0.73 

0.72 

0.04 

0.57 

0.97 

0.76 

0.84 

0.66 

0.71 

0.80 

1.04 

0.49 

1.17 

1.09 

0.97 

1.08 

1.10 

1.36 

1.46 

1.53 

1.26 

1.44 

1.35 

1 23 

1.33 

111 

1.39 j 

1.53 


Pounds. 
38,3(-3,687 
86,297,761 

129,791,466 

148,902,505 
180,71:3,087 
185,099,343 
150, 24(3,403 
17.5,1.50,440 
223,638,479 
216,05.5,977 
174,497,161 
240,820,948 
182,049,527 
177,910,452 
113,013,678 

74,808,708 
127,844,480 

84,310,045 
175,794,883 
181,271,988 
241,(182,930 
24:3, :395,59s 
231,173,574 
312,735,036 
295,338,484 
286,440,244 
38l,!«85,876 
311,l;30,65l 
.330,904,789 
321,749,008 
207,001,114 
3(i2,755,(327 
440,128,838 
423,276,472 


Dollars. 

3,180,479 

7,615,8:34 

9,918,472 

12,48»,(;71 
1;;, 31 2, 1:34 
14,:!Mi,;383 
13,377,972 
15,48(3,4:33 
20,321,142 
19,809,8.54 
16,779,870 
23,262,279 
19,01.5,100 
19,790,812 
12,810,1:35 

9,314,398 
15,350,326 

.5, .52.5, (353 
19,620,927 
19,815,1:31 
24,442,746 
2:3.511,513 
23,8:34,043 
30,494,:309 
37.533,551 
4 2, 9(36, .595 
54,343,107 
49, ;31 1,3:34 
5.5, 163,0(35 
52,007,9:33 
49.828,2:39 
45,045,;3.51 
59,410,196 
53,379,833 


Pounds. 
3.0 


1840 


5.05 


June 30— 
18.50 


5. .55 


1851 


6.3 


1852 


7.3 


1853 


7.3 


1854 


5.7 


1855 


6.4 


1856 


7.9 


1857 


7.5 


1858 


5.9 


1859 


8.1 


I860 


5.8 


1861 

1862 


5.5 
3.4 


1863 


2.2 


1864 


3.7 


1865 


2.4 


1866 


.5.0 


1867 


5.0 


1868 


6.5 


1869 


6.5 


1870 


6.0 


1871 


7.9 


1872 


7.3 


1873 

1874 


6.9 
6.6 


1875 


7.1 


1876 


7.3 


1877 


6.9 


1878 


6.3 


1879 


7.3 


1880 


8.8 


1881 


8.4 







Note. — The consumption of tea and of coffee in the United States, for each year from 
1830 to 1860, inclusive, is estimated by subtracting the amount exported from the 
amount imported. For the years 1807 to 1880, inclusive, the amount of the respective 
articles entered for consumption at the custom-houses is taken as the consumption. 
The population is estimated for years other than the census years 18:30, 1840, 1850, 1860, 
1870, and 1880. In 1870 it was 38,558,371 ; in 1880 it was 50,152,866. 



248 



COFFEE. 



TABLE XXI. 

Weights in Use in Coffee-Producing Countries, with their 
Equivalents in United States Currency. 



Metric denominations and values. 



Names. 




No. grama. 


Equivalents in denomina- 
tion.s in use. 


Millier or tonneau 


— 


1,000,000 


= 


2,204.6 pounds. 


Quintal 


= 


100,000 


= 


220.4G pounds. 


Myriagram 


= 


10,000 


= 


22.046 pounds. 


Eilogram or kilo 


= 


1,000 


= 


2.2046 pounds. 


Hectogram 


= 


100 


= 


3.5274 ounces. 


Decagram 


= 


10 


= 


0.3527 ounce. 


Gram 


= 


1 


= 


15.432 grains. 


Decigram 


= 


0.1 


= 


1.5432 grain. 


Centigram 


= 


0.01 


= 


0. 1543 grain. 


Milligram 


= 


0.001 


= 


0.0154 grain. 



Brazil. 

Metric system obligatory from .January 1, 1S73. 

Tonelada (ton for shipping) = 2,240 

pounds avoirdupois. 
Arroba =r 33.38 pounds. 
Quintal = 130.06 pounds. 

Mexico. 
Quintal = 101.61 pounds. 

PniLippiNES — Manilla. 
Picul — 140 pounds. 

ZOLLVEREIN. 

Centner = 110.24 pounds. 

Prussia. 
Centner — 113.44 pounds. 

Bremen. 

Centner = 137.5 pounds. 

Vienna. 
Centner = 123.5 pounds. 



Netherlands. 
Old Pond = 1.0893 pound. 

Colonies. 

French metric system adopted in 1816. 

1 Picul =100 catties = 10 gautang 

(coffee) = 135.6312 pounds avdp. 

New Grenada, or United States 
OF Colombia. 

French weights. 

Ceylon. 

English weights used. 
Candy = 545 pounds avoirdupois. 

England. 
16 ounces = 1 pound, lb. 
28 pounds = 1 quarter, qr. 
4 quarters = 1 hundredweight, cwb. 
20 hundredweight = 1 ton. 

United States. 

Same as England in custom-house operations. 
Common usage calls 100 pounds a hundredweight, 
25 pounds a quarter. 

Cental = 100 pounds. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



249 



TABLE XXII. — Prices of Good Ordinary Java in Holland, 
1871 to 1880, inclusive. 

(In Dutch cents — 2^ Dutch cents equivalent to one U. S. cent.) 

1871 35 

1872 43 

1873 49i 

1874 (i5i 

1875 55i 

1876 58 

1877 55 

1878 54 

1879 40| 

1880 48 

TABLE XXIIL — Exports of Coffee from Rio de Janeiro foe 
EACH Calendar Year, 1817 to 1880, inclusive. 



36^ 


33 


34^ 


32i 


43 




44i 


40^ 


47 


44 


49i 




57i 


50 


65^ 








72i 


50 


m 


53 


55i 




53 


61 


58 








53 


54 


50 


55 






58 


50 


54 








47 


49 


45 


49 


m 




m 


41 


42 


40i 


50 


48 


39i 


41 


38 


40 


37 


38i 



Year. 


Sacks, 5 Arro- 
bas each. 


lu thousands 
of U. S. 
Pounds. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Sacks, 5 Arro- 
bas each. 


In thousands 
of U. S. 
Pounds. 


Tons. 


1817 


63,986 


10,364 


4,570 


1850 


1,343,484 


217,644 


97,386 


1818 


74,247 


12,028 


5,303 


1851 


2,040,405 


330,546 


147,565 


1819 


73,314 


11,877 


5,237 


1852 


1,900,472 


308,848 


137,879 


1820 


97,500 


15,795 


6,965 


1853 


1,638,210 


265,390 


118,477 


1821 


105,386 


17,073 


7,528 


1854 


1.988.197 


322,088 


143,789 


1822 


152,048 


24,632 


10,861 


1855 


2,408,256 


390,137 


175,169 


1823 


185,000 


29,970 


13,214 


1856 


2,098,312 


339,927 


151,753 


1824 


224,000 


36,288 


16,000 


1857 


2,099,780 


340,164 


151,859 


1825 


183,136 


29,668 


13,081 


1858 


1,830,438 


296,532 


132,380 


1826 


260,000 


42,120 


18,571 


1859 


2,030,266 


328,903 


146,833 


1827 


350,900 


56,846 


25,064 


1860 


2,127,219 


344 609 


153,844 


1828 


369,147 


59,802 


26,368 


1861 


2,069,627 


335,280 


149.678 


1829 


375,107 


60,767 


26,793 


1862 


1,485,220 


240,606 


107,413 


1830 


391,785 


63,469 


27,985 


1863 


1,350,109 


218,718 


97,642 


1831 


448,249 


72,616 


32,018 


1864 


1,480,134 


239,782 


107,045 


1832 


478,950 


77,590 


34,211 


1865 


1,801,952 


291,916 


130,319 


1833 


561,692 


90,994 


40.121 


1866 


1,934,896 


313,453 


139,934 


1834 


560,759 


90,843 


40,054 


1867 


2,659,753 


430,880 


192,357 


1835 


647,438 


104,885 


46,245 


1868 


2,265,185 


366,960 


163,821 


1836 


715,893 


115,975 


51,135 


1869 


2,564,975 


415,526 


185,503 


1837 


657,005 


106,435 


46,929 


1870 


2,209,456 


357,932 


159,791 


1838 


766,696 


124,205 


54.764 


1871 


2,357,961 


381,990 


170,533 


1839 


889,324 


144,070 


63,523 


1872 


2,011,098 


225,798 


145,445 


1840 


1,068,418 


173,084 


76,316 


1873 


1,984,670 


821,517 


143,534 


1841 


1,028,368 


166,596 


73,455 




Sacks, fiO Kilos 






1842 


1,152,608 


186,722 


83,358 




or 132 Lbs. 






1843 


1,105,631 


188,832 


84,300 


1874 


2,644,995 


349,139 


155,588 


1844 


1,232,935 


199,735 


89,168 


1875 


3.190,010 


421,081 


187,648 


1845 


1,191,641 


193,046 


86,181 


1S76 


2,787,501 


367,950 


163,971 


1846 


1,511,096 


244,798 


109,285 


1877 


2,847,756 


375,904 


167,515 


1847 


1,641.560 


21)5, 9H3 


118,719 


1878 


2,914,420 


384,703 


171,436 


1848 


1,710,715 


277,136 


123,721 


1879 


3,507,559 


402,998 


206,329 


1849 


1,459,968 


236,515 


105,587 


1880 


3,436,108 


453,566 


202,124 



BY Cm 

ork. ) 



kUars. 

407 

781', 845 

55i3',259 
109 



1....!^ 

283,597 



r78,206 



17,097 
776 

)43,45i 
1,938 

1,135 

9,185 

H2,958 

)48,121 



lis 



5,J 




143,23 
539,53i 



5,89 



)91,48 



Statemknt Suowinq the Quantity and Value of Coffee btPORTED i 



TO THE UNri'ED SfATEB, DT Cl 
(Compiled apedaUjf for thia teork.) 



— i^^ixr-"- 


1871 


1S73 


■ § 


ra 


1874 


I87S 


1876 


1877 


1878 


I87S 


1880 


Alaska, Alwka 


20 


DotlnnL 
C 


■'""■•^ 


Dollars. 


Poaaaa. 


DollMS. 


415 








Pound.. 


• ai»^^ 


P»sd. 


D<«.„. 


p.«Ji 


DolLu^ 


r.M, 


D«llan 




^^ 
















































Baltimore. Mi 

Barnstable. Mass 








3,070 


8,759,397 
290 


73,770,708 


9,057,000 


61,496,108 


9,221,006 


56,793,782 


10,480,314 


70,156,444 


10,781,845 


77,878,284 


12,373,208 


70,977,023 


11,144,506 


'63,766ii66 


■9,i8b',66o 


'00',5'65',244 


■8,b78',365 


'6'7,9"5'7',965 




Boston and Charleatown, M 
Brasos do Santiago, Tex. . . 








'663 


698,720 
148 


2,037,603 
10,547 


348,640 
1,759 


6,228,037 
3,440 


700.125 
659 


7,954,800 
139,745 


1,028,134 
27,337 


3,331,481 
411 


655,350 
100 


020,343 
68,829 


115,432 
15,343 


803,905 
66;494 


162,344 
13,952 


""m,im 

923 


m'm 

ISO 


■"880,435 
82,080 


■i7o'i3i 

3,580 


' ■l,23"7',453 


"'225',i6lS 


BnlTalo Creek, N. T 












1,243 


248 


3S 


6 






























Ohamplain, U. T 
















































Charleston, S. C. 

Chioago, ni 








387,741 


35,578 


421,604 


45,078 


1,392,010 
136,097 


312,832 
17,363 


1,794,807 


346,737 


1,730,470 


883,507 


951,366 


168,939 










'7,386 


""i',247 


839 
60,374 


48 
10,680 


Corpus Cbristi, Tex 

Detroit. Mich 








543 


■l'9,666 


1,320 


241 


""i'o',249 


" " i^oio 












■• 


2,000 


376 






100 


61 






Femandina. Fla. 
















1,055 


170 






























Galveston, Tex 












3,115,785 


357,773 


6,989,084 


921,041 


3,359,244 


650,468 


4,907,824 


778,300 


6,807,568 


971,024 


7,0511.421 


1.130,407 


"o.iw.oio 


020,703 


6,454,886 


720,863 


' '3,07'9',668 


"m,m 


HoTon. Mich 








35 


6 


24 


5 


2,037 


637 






























Key West, Fla 












27,827 


5,377 


10,533 


3,578 


30,721 


6,293 


3,102 


776 


363 


100 


300 


65 
39 
669,121 
703 
705 
203 

's.'o'o's'ora 


10,435 


2,123 


1,248 


160 


167 


13 


MobUe, Ala.r 

New Bedford, Mass 








9,165,530 
3,037 


847,453 
439 


9,204,303 
8,398 


!','2l'o,55i 
1,226 


6,60'6,346 
1,493 


968,580 
302 


3,438,310 
3,7110 


637,383 

804 

106,147 

I2I243 
4,031,783 


7,401.106 
8,830 


1,043,451 
1,038 


8,996,433 
12,653 


1,494,950 
2,673 


8,766,119 

3,304 

3,800 

810 

'24,383^866 


' '0',786'.7S6 
1,306 


1,164,615 
217 


■ ■S,6^1^2^.483 
19,329 


"465,636 
1,080 


■ ■2,ib4|866 

1,260 


woes 
222 


New Haven, Conn 








319 
33,072,914 


31 

105 

3,108,250 


663 
■25',4l'7',77i 


79 

'si'ife'o'soi 


629 


99 

'mu'.sw 


276,761 

68,413 

31,423,065 


4,197 

63,555 

27,003,143 


1,135 

9,185 

4,419,958 






622 


163 






266 

13,050 
31,048,034 
816,041,021 


16 










23,430 
20,721,567 


3,857 
4,459,310 


137 


20 


New Orleans, La 


31,188,572 


4,010,160 
43,513,004 


Oregon, Dreg 

Pa.nlico,N. C 








15,141 


' im 














180,453,606 


29,046,121 


203,783,730 


34,021,286 


201,478,415 
1,008 


32,067,806 
223 


191,951,185 


81,670,423 


250,328,461 


83,730,331 




wi 


01 


CO. 


2,695 


731 






4,118 


413 


460 
7,470 


146 
1,643 


360 


112 


1,200 


333 










300 


76 






Poasamaqaoddy, Me . . . 








Pearl River, Miss 




















68,235 


11,448 


36,073 


6,997 


















1,500 




































6.982 
"3',86'6',688 


901 
'0S8',03i 


17,773 
"8,5'l3',646 


8,044 

i's'e'ici 
















6,395,114 
5,792,915 


633,763 
678,400 


8,433,565 
4,690 


456,784 
•680 












"flbslsii 






1,400 




"!','l'4is'.4i4 






4,636,071 
100 


730,050 

17 


3,328,587 
790 


609,105 


3,405,758 


3,363,105 


433,403 


438,280 


68,170 


146,063 


Portland and Fabnouth, Me 
















727 
11,939 

'1.926 

652 


65 
1,663 

253 

164 


29,186 
4,955 

6,736 

■i6,06'7;i96 


4,203 
744 

""'l',363 
■1,352.216 




'""i.im 

44,030 


185,263 
8,363 

414,403 
3,560 


39,773 

1,717 

83,603 

421 


8,050 


1,483 


83.383 

300 

3,353,150 

680 

8,198,043 


10,274 

69 

382,001 


1.000 

■"b34;666 

280 


154 

'l30;888 
58 


60 

953,010 

8,818 

'liroilsso 


26 

173,910 

744 

's',bb'6',3M 
400,121 






270,085 


40,836 










5,855 
328,460 




'l46',338 


Richmond, Va 








2,193,146 


866,743 


028,080 


470,280 


65,769 
























93 








'l','82'o',i70 

348,024 

17 




























3,143,337 
639,633 


15,950,574 




12,117,775 

8,050,380 

50 


20,825,313 
2,572,438 


3,831,870 
316,451 










2,142,775 


313,807 














405,001 


Bt Johns, Fla 






































25 
1.248 


6 
202 


22,944 


942 






2 
6,008 


1,347 










1,403 
600 


303 
123 




SJ2 


110 
17,041 


86 
2,070 






WiUamelte, Oreg 












39,356 


5,899 


43,078 


8,605 


2,010 


















































11,011 




























317,993,048 


30,992,809 


298,805,946 


37,943,225 


293,397,371 


44,109,671 


286,171,513 


55,048,967 


317,970,605 


60,591,488 


339,789,340 


60,788,907 


331,639,723 


53,634,901 


309,883,640 


51,014,605 


877,848,473 


47,366,819 


440.850,727 


60,360,700 





Theasurt Departsieht, Bu, 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX. 



PATENTS ON ROASTED COFFEE. 

New York, January 12, 1878. 
Editor American Grocer : 

We are paying a royalty on roasted and glazed coffee. Some parties claim 
to hold a patent for the use of starch, gelatinous, and saccharine substances for 
the purpose, as well as the method of application to roasted coffee. We are in- 
formed that roasters in Chicago and in some other parts of the country decline 
to pay them royalty, and if you can inform us on what grounds they decline, 
and whether there are other patents, and, if possible, whether their patents will 
stand the test of law, you will much oblige, yours truly, 

Beards & Cottrel. 

Perhaps some of tlie roasters declining will inform yon, 
through us, of their reasons for declining to pay a royalty, and 
we can give no opinion as to the value of an untested patent. 
We ascertain that the American Glazed Coffee Association own 
three patents: No. 63,987, issued to Thomas N. Berry, Lynn, 
Mass., April 23, 1867, for preparing coffee for transportation, 
claims 1 ounce French isinglass and 4 ounces water, the mass 
mixed and moulded to form ; 'No. 73,486, issued to John Ar- 
buckle, Jr., Alleghany City, Pa., January 21, 1868 ; the roasted 
coffee is coated with a preparation composed of Irish moss, ^ ounce ; 
gelatine, ^ ounce ; isinglass, ^ ounce ; white sugar, 1 ounce ; eggs, 24 
— the first three are boiled in water and the moss strained clear ; 
claim the coating of roasted coffee with any gelatinous or gluten- 
ous matter for the pui-pose of retaining the aroma of the coffee, 
and also to act as a clarifying agent; also patent No. 91,870, 



254 COFFEE. 

issued to E. E, Rhineliart, Pittsburg, Pa., June 29, 1869, claims 
the mode of cooling or glazing roasted coffee by mixing there- 
witli, before cooling, a mucilaginous or other suitable substance. 
The obtaining of these three patents for substantially the same 
articles and purpose shows the facility with which patents are 
obtained, and that in many cases their real value is questionable 
until tested in higher courts. We find, also, an English patent, 
No 8,131, issued to William Pidding, November 28, 1866, which 
antedates and originates the ideas set forth in the patents owned 
by the association : 

"English patent. No. 3,131, William Pidding, November 28, 
1866 (not sealed), subjects the green coifee to cutting up into par- 
ticles and grains, then to desiccation and roasting. In some cases 
prefers to swell the berry by subjecting to steam at low tempera- 
ture, in closed vessels. The granulated and roasted coffee is sub- 
jected to pressure, with or without humid heat, between cellular 
plates or indented rollers, producing cakes or balls of different 
shapes ; then subjects them to a coating of gelatinous matter, 
whether composed of pure gelatine, gum, starch, or starch gum, 
used either separately or in combination. This coating is used as 
a preservative of aroma and purity, the coffee being made air- 
tight. In some cases intends to use the various gelatinous 
matters in a dry. state or pow^der (or solution), mixing the same 
with the granulated coffee, and subjecting the same to a humid 
heat and pressure, to produce cakes or balls. The cakes, etc., by 
either process are subjected to heat of a temperature sufficient to 
harden them and render them portable." 

As this patent is not sealed, it is incomplete, but, under a 
decision of Judge Strong, in the October Term of 1 876, it may be 
of some value. The following is the decision : 

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Corset Patent. — Moritz Colin, appellant., vs. The United States Corset Company^ 
John H. Lane and William Lyall. 

[Appeal from the Circuit Court of the United States for the Southern District 
of New York. — Decided October Term, 187G.] 

A patent is invalid if the invention claimed is found to be patented or de- 
scribed in a printed publication prior to the patentee's invention or discovery 



APPENDIX. 255 

thereof, and it is enongli if the thing patented is described, and not the steps 
necessarily antecedent to its production. 

Thus, when the iuvention claimed is an article, it is not necessary, in order 
to render the patent void, that the prior puhlicatiou should also contain a de- 
scription of the process by which such article was made. 

Unless the earlier printed and published description does exhibit the later 
patented invention in such a full and intelligible manner as to enable persons 
skilled in the art to which the invention is related to comprehend it without 
assistance from the patent, or to make it or repeat the process claimed, it is in- 
sufficient to invalidate the patent. 

Mr. Justice Strong delivered the opinion of the court. 

A carePul examination of the evidence in this case has convinced us that the 
invention claimed and patented to the plaintiff was anticipated and described in 
the English provisional specification of John Henry Johnson, left in the office of 
the Commissioner of Patents on the 20ih of January, a.d. 1854. That specifi- 
cation was printed and published in England officially in 1854, and is contained 
in volume second of a printed publication circulated in this country as early as 
the year 1856. It is therefore fatal to the validity of the plaintiflE's patent if, in 
fact, it does describe sufficiently the manufacture described and claimed in his 
specification. The plaintiff's application at the Patent Office was made on the 
SOth of January, 1873. In it he claimed to have invented " a new and useful 
improvement in corsets." After reciting that previous to his invention it had 
bean customary, in the manufacture of corsets, to weave the material with 
pocket-like openings or passages running from etlge to edge, and adapted to re- 
ceive the bones, which are inserted to stay the woven fabric, and which serve as 
braces to give shape to and support the figure of the wearer, but that it had 
been necessary, after the insertion of the bones into said pocket-like passages, 
to secure each one endwise by sewing, he proceeded to mention objections to 
that mode of making a corset. He specified two only. The first was that it 
Involved much hand labor, and consequent expense, in sewing in the bones, or 
securing them endwise in the woven passages ; and the second was that the ar- 
rangemen'j or placement of the bones in the passages had to be determined by 
hand manipulation, and that it was therefore variable and irregular, such as fre- 
quently to give to the corset an undesirable shape or appearance near its upper 
edge. These objections he proposed to remove, and to produce a corset in 
which the location or position endwise of the bones shall be predetermined with 
the accuracy of the jacquard in the process of weaving the corset stuffs or ma- 
torials, thereby effecting the saving of labor and expense in the manufacture. 
He therefore declared his invention to consist in having the pocket-like openings 
or passages into which the bones are put closed up near one end, and at that 

point at which it is designed to have the end of each bone located 

Amendments were then made until his present patent was at last granted, dated 
April 15, 1873. In the specification which accompanies it, the patentee omits 
what he admitted at first — that prior to his invention it had been customary, in 
the manufacture of corsets, to weave the material with pocket-like openings or 
passages running through from edge to edge, and he makes the further admis- 
sion that it had been customary to weave the material with such passages all 



256 COFFEE. 

stopped and finished ofE at uniform distances from the edge. He therefore dis- 
claims ' ' a woven corset with the pockets stopped and finished off at a uniform 
distance from the edges," and he disclaims also "a hand-made corset with 
pockets of varying lengths stitched on," and his claim is, "a corset having the 
pockets for the reception of the bones formed in the weaving, and varying in 
length relatively to each other, as desii'ed, substantially in the manner and for 
the purposes set forth." 



"N^OTES BY THE AVAT." 

Having been often asked why I did not collect and publish 
a series of letters written while on a trip around the world in 
1876, most of which appeared in the American Grocer under the 
above title, or that of " Wayside Scenes, Thoughts and Fancies," I 
have embraced the present opportunity to do so, not because I 
think these letters of much general interest, but being written from 
a grocer's point of view, and touching somewhat often upon the 
food products of the Orient, they have been received with much 
favor by dealers in such articles, and they douljtless find an appro- 
priate place in a work devoted to good things for the inner man. 
I therefore begin with 



ACEOSS THE PACIFIC. 

Steamer Alaska, 
Pacific Ocean, August 26, 1876. 

A long sea voyage is always somewhat monotonous, but a per- 
son disposed to look at the bright side of life can generally pick 
out some items of enjoyment to compensate for the general lack 
of that commodity, " Life-on-the-ocean-M-ave " people will please 
take note of this observation and the opinion of your correspond- 
ent. Somebody has said that " Doubtless God might have made 
a better berry than the strawberry, but doubtless God never 
did ; " and it is possible that infinite power might create a more 
unnatural element for the human race to exist upon than the 
sea, but in my humble opinion infinite power never did. Tues- 
day, August 1st, at noon, found me on board of the steamship 
Alaska, at San Francisco, bound for Yokoham'a, and as the 
lines were cast off and the huge bulk of the steamer moved 
slowly out into the bay, the usual greetings were exchanged 
17 



258 COFFEE 

between friends on sliip and friends on shore. Moving rapidly 
down tlie beautiful bay of San Francisco and out through the 
Golden Gate, the shores of America rapidly receded and were 
soon an indistinct line in the distance. One of the first things 
that strike a passenger on the ships of the Pacific Mail Steam- 
ship Company is the omnipresent Chinaman — Chinese waiters, 
Chinese cooks, Chinese firemen, Chinese sailors, and Chinese 
steerage passengers are everywhere to be seen. Indeed, the only 
white men on board the ship are the officers and cabin pas- 
sengers. I asked our captain if there were no white sailors on 
board, and was surprised to receive the answer, "]Sro, nothing 
below a boatswain, and one of those is a Chinaman." We have 
only about twenty-five cabin passengers, among whom are three 
missionaries, three young Japanese returning home after finish- 
ing their education in the United States, two officers of Ameri- 
can men-of-war going out to join their ships, and the balance 
is made up of tourists and commercial men bound for different 
parts of the world. In the steerage are one hundred and sixty 
Chinese, mostly men, but also including a few women and 
children, returning to their homes in China. Some of these 
speak English quite well. Said one of them to me, in answer to 
an inquiry as to why he was going back to China : " Go China to 
gettee wifee, then go back Calif ornee." I asked him if he had 
one picked out, and he said, " Xo, I buy one." I asked him how 
much she Vv^ould cost, and he said : " Kinety dollar buy nice one 
with small footee." I asked him why he preferred those with 
small feet, and he answered : " Chinawoman big footee may be 
run around after other Chinaman, but Chinawoman small footee 
you leave her home, you find her there when you come back." 
By subsequent inquiry I found that the money paid to the bride's 
parents is considered a sort of dowry, but there is so little senti- 
ment indulged in, and the bride has so little to say about lier likes 
and dislikes, that it is very natural to esteem it a sort of a bargain 
and sale. Indeed in Japan, China, India, and all Eastern coun- 
tries, the females have little scope for the exercise of their pref- 
erences as to whom they will marry. 

For several days we have been making an average of two hun- 
dred miles per day, which is not very fast, but we are heavily la- 



APPENDIX. 259 

den, and on a long voyage like this, the company — principally for 
the consideration of economy in coal — do not drive their ships as 
is done on the Atlantic. Besides, the Alaska is one of the old 
side-wheel pattern of ships, and not very fast, although quite 
steady and comfortable. Twice the monotony of our voyage has 
been broken by an alarm of fire, which, however, turned out to be 
only a false alarm for the purpose of exercising the officers and 
crew in the fire-drill, which appears to be very perfect and efficient. 
Yesterday, in four minutes from the giving of the alarm, the hose 
was uncoiled, run aft, and six streams from the steam-pumps 
were pouring over the side in a way so vigorous that it must 
have proved very effective in case they were directed on a fire. 
The crew are also occasionally exercised at boat-drill, so as to per- 
fect them in getting out and lowering the boats in case of need. 
A few evenings ago, just before retiring for the night, we had a 
beautiful view of a lunar-bow or " moon-rainbow," the largest 
and most distinct that I ever saw. On Sundays, regular service 
is held night and morning, usually celebrated in the morning by 
one of our American missionaries, and in the evening by two 
English missionaries who are destined for Japan. The chief 
amusements for week-days are sea-quoits, otherv.ise known as 
" bull," and reading and music. Altogether we manage to wear 
away the time as pleasantly as could be expected. Thus far we 
have had the usual variety of weather, clear or cloudy, dry or wet, 
smooth or rough, but old voyagers on the Pacific say that, taken al- 
together, the weather has been very good. On the IGtli we reached 
the ISOth meridian of longitude, and " the event of the voyage " 
took place, namely, losing a day. I had often heard of this, but 
never fully realized it until I had passed through the operation my- 
self. It is briefly this — that in going round the world westward 
you constantly gain in time four minutes to the degree or parallel 
of longitude ; consequently, when you arrive at the 180th parallel 
and are half-way round, from Greenwich, you have gained twelve 
hours, and, for the sake of convenience in navigation, this is called 
a day^ in order to prevent twelve o'clock at night from being 
twelve o'clock in the daj'time. 

The occasion of crossing the line is generally signalized by 
some kind of ceremonies, and in our case an oil-barrel painted to 



260 COFFEE. 

resemble a buoy was dropped overboard, a gun fired, and the pas- 
sengers of course all rushed on deck to find out what the firing 
meant. They were referred to the buoy, which was now plainly 
visible astern, as being the buoy which marked the ISOtli parallel 
of longitude. Of course they accepted this statement as " gos- 
pel truth," and due note was made of it in diaries, but after the 
joke had been carried sufliciently far it was duly explained by 
the captain, much to the enjoyment of the few who were in the 
secret, and the chagrin of those who had been taken in. 

We have now been out twenty-three days, and have made 4,577 
miles. If nothing happens, twelve hours more will bring us to the 
end of our voyage — a voyage which, although we consider it long, 
is less than half the time formerly occupied by our clippers in cross- 
ing the same space. IS^ine years ago the first steamer of this line 
crossed the Pacific Ocean, and for all the purposes for which 
oceans are valuable, for the use of commerce, reduced the distance 
between Asia and America one-half. Many may not appreciate 
the significance of this, but it means that the commerce of the In- 
dies — the prize for which all the great nations of the earth have 
contended during the last two thousand years— lias been brought 
within the grasp of the youngest nation. All that it needs is a 
wise and liberal policy on the part of our statesmen. Natives of 
China and other countries whose shores are washed by the Pacific 
Ocean must be guaranteed, when they come to this country, the 
same right that our Constitution has given the citizens of every 
country who have come to us since we have been a nation. The 
only important line of American steamships now afloat should be 
kept going by the same means that have fostered all British lines 
until they were strong enough to make their way unassisted — 
liberal subsidies for frequent mail service. 

Frequent communication with, and simple justice in the treat- 
ment of the natives of the Indies will give us their trade. They 
will send us their tea, silk, coffee, and spices, and take our flour, 
petroleum, machinery, and other manufactured goods in vast quan- 
tities. Already entire cargoes of flour are shipped to China from 
our Pacific Coast, and the steamer upon which I am writing has 
more than a thousand tons of flour, dried fish, machinery, and 
other American products on board, destined for China and Japan. 



APPE]S"DIX. 261 



JAPANESE NOTES. 

TEA CULTURE IN JAPAN. 

Kobe, Japan, September 15, 1876. 

It is always hard for travellers and correspondents to ascertain 
bottom facts, and when successful they do not always possess 
the technical knowledge which enables them to present under- 
standingly the facts which they have gathered. In all my expe- 
rience in the tea trade in the United States, and from the various 
descriptive articles which I have read, I never obtained a clear 
id-ea of the processes by which this important staple was pro- 
duced. 

During my visit in Japan I was therefore anxious to obtain 
all possible information upon tjiis subject. At the shipping ports 
even I found a considerable conliict of opinion between tea mer- 
chants upon various important points, and I therefore determined 
to visit one of the principal tea-producing districts in the interior, 
and, if possible, see for myself just how things were done. 
Armed with letters from the American Consul at Iliogo, Mr. 
Neuwitter, to the Governor of Kioto Fu, in which is situated the 
celebrated Yamashiro tea district, I proceeded to Kioto, which is 
some fifty miles in the interior. I was courteously received, pro- 
vided with an interpreter from the Government School of Agri- 
culture, and advised to visit the town or village of Uji, in the 
Yamashiro district, of which an ancient translation of an old 
Japanese book says : 

"The village Uji, wdiich lies in the east of Yodo, is very 
famous for tea in this country. There are very old tea trees, at 
least two or three hundred years old. 

" The ground in this village is so fit for tea-trees that no other 
place can be equal in Japan. Almost all people of this village 
live in planting the tea-trees, and taking care of the plants. 

" A great many quantities of tea are sent out all over this 
country, and even foreign countries. That is most principale pro- 
duction in this country. In the spring, women and girls pick the 
leaves of the plants, and that is very beautif id sight. 



262 COFFEE. 

" It is in tlie direction of tlie sonthwest from tliis city, and 
tlie distance to the village from Sanjio is 3 Ris." 

Taking jinrikishas, eacli drawn by two strong and active 
coolies, we passed through the outskirts of Kioto and over a beau- 
tiful rolling country, for some six or seven miles, to the locality 
above mentioned. The lowlands along this section are occupied 
by rice-fields, while the uplands are cultivated principally for tea. 
There is considerable variety in the mode of cultivation, but 
the prevailing system seems to be to plant in rows, about six 
feet apart. Three or four plants are usually planted together in 
hills, which are about three feet apart, and these, as they grow 
larger, fill nearly the whole space which is originally left between 
the hills, thus making an almost continuous row. The plants are 
raised from the seed, and take from three to four years to mature 
sufficiently to yield the first crop. After that they are picked 
continuously for many years. 

During the winter and early spring, in the districts yielding 
the best varieties of tea, the plants are covered with mats, which 
serve the double purpose of protecting them first from the cold, 
which might injure the plants, and later, from the sun, M'hich 
tends to make the leaves tough, and injures the delicacy of the 
flavor. The first picking, which is considered the best, takes place 
the last of April, or the beginning of May ; the second, about a 
month later ; while the third, which is often omitted, particularly 
when prices are low, takes place usually during the month of 
July. 

The tea-plant is a species of camellia, bearing a thick and 
glossy leaf, which, when green, has no tea flavor, or rather, has a 
flavor very unlike the cured leaf known to us as tea. Left to them- 
selves, the plants w^ould probably grow to a considerable height, 
but they are pruned and trimmed down, so that they are seldom 
more than three or four feet high. This results in a large num- 
ber of small branches, producing small and tender leaves, which 
are the only ones sought for, although in rapid picking different 
sized leaves will naturally be taken, together with a considerable 
quantity of stems and other trash. Immediately upon being 
picked they are taken to the buildings, where they are cured. A 
considerable number of the flat baskets, in which the tea is 



APPENDIX. 263 

brought from the field, are placed over a steaming apparatus for 
a few seconds, the steam permeating the mass and wilting the 
leaves ; this gives tlieni a darls. green color, and enables the leaf 
to be rolled or doubled up, so that there is less liability to crumble 
when fired. They are then thrown upon large paper pans, be- 
neath which a gentle charcoal fire is maintained. They are here 
toasted or fired for several hours, varying somewhat with the de- 
gree of heat maintained, during which they are constantly rolled 
and stirred with the hands, so as to make the leaf as compact as 
possible. This completes the curing process, so far as the natives 
are concerned. The tea is then placed in large baskets, to await 
the sorting process. This is more or less carefully done according 
to the market for which the tea is destined and the number of 
grades which are desired. This process, as well as much other work 
connected with tea culture, is principally done by women and chil- 
dren. A small quantity of dried leaf is placed on a smooth tray 
or table before the sorters, who with a pair of chopsticks dex- 
terously pick out the stems and coarse leaves, which are thrown 
aside as refuse. In the finer qualities they also separate the large 
from the small leaves, the latter being the most highly esteemed, 
and bringing much the highest price. After the tea is thus as- 
sorted it is sifted, to extract the dust and broken leaves, and packed 
to be sent to market. The finer qualities are generally placed in 
large earthenware jars, such as we sometimes see in the American 
market, but by far the larger portion is placed in chests holding 
from seventy-five to one hundred pounds. Some of the smaller 
tea farms often sell their product to the larger farmers or small 
country merchants, who pack it as above and send it to mar- 
ket. In passing along the narrow roads I occasionally saw quan- 
tities of tea packed in paper bales, being thus taken to neighbor- 
ing merchants, who make a business of purchasing for shipment 
to the larger markets at the seaports and elsewhere. 

We now come to the important part of the preparation of tea 
for the foreign market. At the principal shipping ports are estab- 
lished numbers of foreign houses, which make a business of buying 
the tea as it comes from the natives, and preparing it for export. 
These firms possess large warehouses, called " go-downs," which 
are provided with numbers of stone or mason-work furnaces, in 



264 COFFEE. 

each of which is placed an iron kettle, in which the tea is refired, 
to expel the surplus moisture, and to give it the rich " toasty " 
flavor which is desired by American consumers. During this 
process it loses from five to ten per cent, in weight from the mois- ' 
ture and dust which are taken out. The tea is taken as it comes 
from the country in boxes and jars, weighed, and dumped into a 
large pile, and thoroughly mixed to insure uniformity in the 
quality of each lot. Sometimes, when a particular grade or style 
is desired, different lots will be mixed together to produce the 
quality and style required. Each of the kettles is in charge of a 
Japanese workman, or workwoman, and these come along in reg- 
ular file with their little baskets, and receive a quantity of tea 
sufficient for one charge. This they take back and place in their 
kettle, and keep constantly stirring it with their hands until it is 
sufficiently dried or toasted. They then take it out of the kettle, 
carry it back to where they received it, get a fresh charge, and 
keep repeating this operation. After it is fired, it is sifted to 
remove the surplus dust, re-packed into new half -chests, many of 
which are made from the old chests which come down from the 
country. Inside of each of these half-chests is placed a lining of 
lead, weighing, upon an average, about three and one-half pounds. 
This is soldered up air-tight, and the lid of the package nailed on. 
It is then matted, faced, ratanned, and is ready for shipment. A 
tea " go-down," when firing, presents a very animated and inter- 
esting spectacle. Different establishments vary in size, but some 
of them have as many as two hundred to three hundred furnaces, 
and, with all the other help required in carrying on the various 
parts of the process, such as receiving, packing, delivering, etc., in 
the busy season, employ five or six hundred hands, and turn out 
as many packages of tea per day. Men, women, and children are 
all employed in the different parts of this work, and the average 
Wages paid are about twenty cents per day. For this sum a 
Japanese will work ten or eleven hours over a " go-down furnace," 
in a temperature which I can only compare to that of the stoke- 
hole of an ocean steamer, which, measured by the thermometer, 
ranges anywhere from 100 to 130 degrees. 



APPENDIX. 266 

IMPKESSIONS OF JAPAN. 

Nagasaki, September 18, 1876. 

Coming here from our Pacific Coast during the month of 
August, when everjtliing there, owing to the long absence of 
rain, is dry and brown, one is agreeably impressed with the con- 
trast which the green hill-sides and valleys of Japan present, and 
this contrast between the verdure and foliage of the .two countries 
is no greater than that between the respective people, their manners 
and customs. As we sailed through the entrance to the Bay of 
Yokohama, our attention was first attracted to the fleets of quaint 
fishing-boats, manned by nearly naked copper-colored crews, and, 
as soon as our steamer cast anclior in the harbor, it was surrounded 
by a throng of queer-looking boats called " sampans." In appear- 
ance they are a little like a Venetian gondola, but are unpainted, 
and, instead of being rowed, are sculled with a long double-jointed 
oar, which, although it looks clumsy, is very effective in native 
hands. I shall never forget my first trip to the shore in a " sam- 
pan," propelled by three or four of these half-naked boatmen, 
their lithe bodies bending in time with a weird chant, with which 
they accompanied their efforts. On landing, another surprise 
presented itself in the shape of a "j/inrfeAa," which is the ordi- 
nary mode of conveyance on land here. The ^^ jinriksha " is a 
sort of exaggerated baby-carriage on two wheels, and is drawn by 
either one or two men, usually by one, at a rate of speed which, 
perhaps, is not as fast as a London cab, but is certainly faster 
than the average rate of our hacks and omnibuses in America. 
At first they were only used in the smooth streets of the cities, 
which are here macadamized and usually very level, but they 
proved so effective and popular, that they are now used in all the 
principal towns and cities of the empire, and long trips through 
the country are made with them. It is no unconnnon thing for a 
^^jlnrlksha " drawn by two men, to accomplish forty or even fifty 
miles per day, across the country, where the roads are by no 
means perfect or level. The first one was invented by a Japanese 
about nine years ago, and it is estimated now that there are up- 
ward of a hundred thousand in the country, and the number is 
increasing very rapidly. Some f om* or five thousand have recently 



266 COFFEE. 

been put in operation in China, where they bid fair to be as suc- 
cessful as hei-e. Japanese houses are generally mere skeletons 
constructed of wood, in the country roofed with straw, in the 
cities with tiles somewhat similar to the old Dutch pattern ; they 
are arranged with screens which slide in grooves, and which, in 
warm weather, can, if desired, be taken out on all four sides ; the 
rooms are also simply separated with screens or sliding paper par- 
titions about six feet high. They have no chairs or bedsteads, 
everybody sitting cross-legged on the floor, which is composed of 
thick, heavy grass mats, which also serve the purpose of a bed at 
night. Shoes, which consist either of wooden clogs or straw san- 
dais, are invariably removed before entering the house, Vvdiich is 
thus always kept neat and clean. Rice and fish are the principal 
articles of diet, and chopsticks, as in China, are used to convey 
the food to the mouth, no knife or fork being used. Tea is the 
universal drink, although sahi, a inalt liquor brewed from rice 
and barley, is used to a considerable extent. It is not strong and 
fiery like distilled liquor, but will intoxicate if taken in sufficient 
quantities. Costumes are scanty, especially in summer time, and 
in the country many of the males go naked with the exception of a 
scanty cloth around the loins. This is also true of the boatmen at 
the seaports, but in the cities all classes are obliged by law to wear 
a soi't of wrapper called hiinona. Women are, as a rule, more 
fully dressed, but they, as well as the men, usually go bareheaded. 
In the higher classes some affect the European costume, and all are 
more completely clad than the lower classes. Infants are never 
carried in the arms, but on the back, supported by a shawl or 
scarf, and clinging tightly, even when quite small, to the neck and 
shoidders of the person carrying them. They are generally con- 
fided to the care of the other children who are too young to work, 
or of very old and superannuated persons. It is no nncommon 
thing to see a little girl of five or six years, with an infant fastened 
upon her back, entering into sports with children of her own age, 
without seeming to heed, in the slightest degree, the burden she 
is carrying. While the language of adult Japanese is as different 
as can well be imagined from that of Europeans, I have noted 
that babies' cries sound quite natural. Indeed, I believe that the 
language of babies is the same all the world over. Perhaps when 



APPENDIX. 267 

the tongues were confounded at the building of the Tower of 
Babel, babies were not included, as thej could hardly assist in the 
building of the tower. In color the Japanese are principally of a 
light copper-color, the better classes being somewhat lighter than 
the peasantry, and the women of all classes lighter than the men. 
Their hair is, almost without exception, of a glossy black, and is 
usually coarse and strong. The women dress it most elaborately, 
and much time is given to its care. AVith the men, the higher 
classes usually wear it as Americans do, but others shave a space 
about four inches wide, extending from the forehead back to the 
crown, and wearing the rest of it long, it is gathered up in a sort 
of queue, and,*being carefully tied, projects fi-om the back of the 
head forward over the top. This style, however, savors some- 
what of barbarism, and is discouraged by the government, which 
has also prohibited the tattooing of men's bodies, which practice 
was formerly quite prevalent, and was most elaborately done. 
For beasts of burden they have oxen and horses, but these are 
used as pack animals, there being no wheel vehicles used to any 
extent among the Japanese ; indeed, nearly everything is carried 
on the shoulders of men. Previous to the introduction of "j/m- 
rinshas,'^ people were carried in " kagos,'''' a sort of chair, slung on 
long poles ; and now nearly everything, from vegetables and mar- 
ket produce to earth and fertilizing material, is carried in baskets 
or buckets slung on poles something like the neck-yokes used in 
maple-sugar camps in the United States to carry the sap from the 
trees to the boilers. In Yokohama I saw a piece of low ground, 
which was to be used for a building site, being filled in with earth 
thus carried in baskets on men's shoulders a distance of several 
squares ; and here in I^agasaki our steamer was coaled by a double 
line of coolies (as the working class here is somewhat erroneously 
called), composed of about an equal number of men and women, ex- 
tending from the coal- junk to the deck of the steamer, who quickly 
passed small grass baskets filled with coal from hand to hand, and 
thus kept up an almost continuous stream of coal, somewhat as 
buckets of water are sometimes passed at a fire where there are 
no engines. Everything is done in a small and ineffective way. 
Lawns are clipped with large shears ; the earth is cultivated in 
miniature patches with great thoroughness and minuteness of de- 



268 COFFEE. 

tail, but with equal slowness and tediousness. Of course such 
things can only be in a country where labor is very cheap. Tiie 
average wages of a laborer here is only about twenty cents per 
day ; skilled artisans can be obtained for from twenty-five to 
thirty cents, and in some places even less than these figures rule. 
Policemen get from five to seven dollars per month, I expressed 
my surprise to the Japanese gentleman from whom I received 
this information, and asked him how much a policeman could get 
board for per month, and was told that for two dollars and a half 
per month a single man could get good ordinary board, the fare 
consisting principally of rice and fish. Rice is worth here from 
$1.50 to $1.75 per picul of one hundred and thirty-three pounds, 
or about l-|c. to Ifc. per pound. At first thought it seems as if 
there might be a profit to import it into the United States, but 
our duty of 2.jC. per pound, together with freight, insurance, and 
premium on gold, bring it up to a figure where there is no mar- 
gin. They do know how to cook rice here, though, and for the 
benefit of grocers and consumers in the United States I investi- 
gated the matter : Only just enough cold water is poured on 
to prevent the rice from burning at the bottom of the pot, 
which has a close-fitting cover, and with a moderate fire the rice 
is steamed rather than boiled until it is nearly done ; then the 
cover is taken off, the surplus steam and moisture allowed to 
escape, and the rice turns out a mass of snow-white kernels, each 
separate from the other, and as much superior to the usual soggy 
mass we usually get in the United States as a fine mealy potato is 
superior to the water-soaked article. I have seen something ap- 
proaching this in our Southern States, but I do not think even 
there that they do it as skilfully as it is done here, and in the 
Northern States but very few persons understand how to cook 
rice properly. I am sure that if cooked as it is here, the con- 
sumption of this wholesome and delicious cereal would largely 
increase in America. But to resume my remarks about the rates 
of labor, old residents say that the above-named pi-ices are much 
higher than they used to be, and complain bitterly of the high 
cost of labor. 

This is doubtless the result of the progressive policy which has 
ruled in Japan during the last twelve years — a policy which was 



APPENDIX. 269 

begun by the Tycoons, and which was taken up and improved by 
the present government, of which the Mikado is the head, and in 
which he takes an active part. Wonderful progress has been 
made in developing the material resources of the countr}', and the 
present government deserve great credit for the progressive policy 
which they have so vigorously pursued. The Japanese are natu- 
rally bright and intelligent, and w4iile they have never, until lately, 
had an adequate educational system, yet the majority can read 
and write, and books are plenty and cheap. During the past few- 
years foreign languages have been taught in their principal 
schools, and a few of them now speak English quite well. Some 
of their attempts, however, are quite amusing, although probably 
not more so to us than our efforts to speak their language are to 
them. I append a circular of a hotel-keeper at Kioto, which is 
rather quaint and amusing. Just as I was departing he handed 
me a number of them, and desired me to place them in the hands 
of my friends. 

(Picture of Kioto Maruyama.) 

ENTREATY. 

The undersigned respectfully informs visitors to Kioto ond 
Biwa, that he will conduct (under his personal supervision) a first 
class hotel situate at Maruyama Kioto Japan. The buildings are 
so situated that the whole city of Kioto can be clearly seen there, 
being on oue side surrounded by hills covered with beautiful 
flowers, and presenting the finest scenery in the country. 
No inconvenience about meal and sleepiny. &c. 

Various Kinds of wines. Beer, and other European liquors, sold at 
possibly fairest price 

The proprietor wishes the visitors to come without changing 
their part — prejudice. 
charge for meal and stoppage per day 

3 yen and 50 sen (2 dollars and 50 cents). 

But every one may desire his own agreeable charge. 

ya-ami'S Hotel, (old jeutei,s) 

At maruyama, Kioto, 

Japan. 

Altogether my impressions of Japan are most pleasant. The 
scenery, in many of its features, is beautiful and unique ; the 



270 COFFEE. 

people possess a much liiglier order of intelligence and ability 
than I had expected, and I liave everywhere met with so much 
kindness and hospitality that I can hardly realize that up to 
within a very few years the country was closed to foreigners, and 
they were looked upon as national enemies by the great mass of 
the people. 

JAPANESE ENGLISH. 

To the American reader the following " Extracts from the 
Diary of a Member of the Japanese Embassy to Europe in 
1862-63 " will be likely to prove interesting. In commenting 
upon the difficulty of intelligibly describing all that he saw, this 
gentleman says : 

" More than this, I did not learn the crab-movement method 
of writing (meaning the Western system of writing across the 
page, in contradistinction to the Japanese method, w^hicli is per- 
pendicular), nor did I become practised in the shrike-tongued lan- 
guages, by which means I could make inquiries and form opin- 
ions, or obtain a knowledge of these people, their customs, 
manners, and dispositions. I am now writing merely what I 
heard and saw. It is to be feared that there will be very little of 
fact and a great deal of conjecture. A judgment concerning the 
whole must not be formed from a partial description." 

He describes the British man-of-war, in which they embarked, 
and her crew, as follows : 

" ]S^ame of ship Odin (the meaning of which is not under- 
stood) ; length, 191 feet ; breadth, 42 feet ; capacity, 2,000 tons ; 
steam, 560 horse-power ; masts, 3 ; paddle-wheels, 2 ; big guns, 
8 ; middle-sized guns, 21 ; captain, lord — official title ; Hay, 
name ; officer of first rank, lieutenant — official title ; Briggs, 
name ; small lieutenants, 3 ; compass-considerers (quartermasters), 
7 ; officers of steam department, 7 ; officers (gun-room officers ?), 
12 ; total number on board, 310 men." 

In describing some of the institutions at Hong Kong, he says : 

" We went into a government building two stories high, by 68 
yards long, by 21 yards broad. We asked in writing what house it 
was ; a man answered in the same way, ' Xo. 99, Soldiers' House ' 
(99th regiment), whereon I think, although I do not know clearly 



APPENDIX. 271 

the entire nnruber of lioiises, it cannot be less than ninetj-nine, 
which is of itself plain. May we not say that they are vei-y nu- 
merous ? In the afternoon I returned to the hotel, and in the 
evening went in suite to the Governor's house, where I saw bar- 
barous dancing. For music they had flutes, fiddles, and drums. 
In dancing, each man takes a woman by the hand and all the 
couples come forward. They spread and met, assembled and dis- 
persed, advanced and retired, then suddenly went swiftly round 
and round. While doing this they did not sing. I retired early, 
as I did not care to listen to the music, for all the sounds seemed 
alike and very die-away. All Western countries have this, and 
they call it ' tansu ' (dance). 

" First month, tenth day. — Soon after ten o'clock went out to 
walk in the broad place outside the town to see the soldiery. 
There were together five hundred men with muskets. They ad- 
vanced and retired quickly, then spread out and closed up again, 
loaded and fired all very exactly by companies and sections, so 
that their movements seemed as if made by one hand and one 
foot." 

His first experience on a railroad is thus described : 
" The baggage had already been landed from the ship and put 
into the steam-carriage. So, at two o'clock, we mounted the car- 
riage and set off westward by the power of steam as quick as 
lightning. The inside of it is divided into three parts, in each of 
which eight people sit face to face. Just behind, six steam-car- 
riages were connected with us, all filled with people. These car- 
riages can be increased or decreased in number, according to the 
number of travellers and the quantity of their baggage. The 
steam power of the carriage at the head of it can run like light- 
ning one thousand or ten thousand miles, with a train of carriages 
three hundred yards long behind it. How wonderful and sur- 
prising this is ! The carriage-way is made of iron thresholds, a 
little less than two inches broad, six inches high, and more than 
six or eight yards long, connected together. The two thresholds 
are about ten feet apart, and these lines, stretching along for 
many thousand miles, form the road of the steam -carriage. At 
every twenty yards are planted posts about eighteen feet high, on 
which are hung, in small or great immbers, all the lio-litnino;-news 



272 COFFEE. 

long wires. If there be a river in the road an iron or stone bridge 
is thrown across ; if thej meet with a liill, thej pierce its belly 
and make a tube-like opening through it. As it is dark in these 
openings, in every division of the carriage there is a glass lamp 
overhead in the centre, which is put in and lighted from the roof ; 
but the ground in Western countries is generally flat and level, 
with hardly any mountains rising up at all." 

After describing the beauties of the Viceroy's palace in Cairo, 
he adds : 

" But the Viceroy lives at Alexandria during the winter and 
spring, and only resides in this castle in the summer time. Hence 
it follows that, while the castle and the Buddahall are so beautiful, 
the houses of the people fall to ruins. Princes who neglect their 
people may find a mirror here." 

Alluding to the Pyramids, he says : 

" South of the city, about a mile distant, are three great stone 
towers of wonderful shape. Each is about six hundred feet square 
and of the same height. They were built more than three thou- 
sand years ago, and are the most wonderful sight in the world. 
They are full of confused and unreadable characters, written on 
stone, and there is no one to make the meaning clear ; but lately 
some Westerns, who are fond of this thing, have considered them 
minutely and have discovered the meaning for the first time, as 
it may be seen in their books." 

In describing the streets of Malta, he mentions that at every 
twenty -four yards is an iron lamp-post, in which " gassu " is lighted 
after dark for the convenience of the passers-by. 

Alluding to manning the yards and saluting the Japanese flag 
by the English frigate Marlborough, he says : 

" Just as we were going out of the harbor's mouth we met an. 
Englishman about two hundred and seventy feet long called 
Marlborough. She hoisted the morning-sun flag (Japanese) and 
fired a salute of fifteen guns, in consequence of which the chief 
Imperial Envoy went on board of this ship and returned again 
after a short titne. The morning-sun flag was then flown again 
and fifteen guns fired. The sailors stood in line upon the wood 
of the sails (yards), so as to complete the ceremonies with which 
illustrious guests are sent on their boat. In my opinion this is 



APPENDIX. 273 

not an unimportant matter, since it depends upon tlie dignity or 
meanness of tlie country. Tliis, therefore, was to call the atten- 
tion and command the respect of every ship in the harbor. If 
the morning-sun flag goes to any part of the five continents the 
same is done. How gratifying and pleasant is this. When our 
ship left Malta, several of the soldiers sent from England to gar- 
rison that island, their time being up, were relieved from their 
duties and took passage on the ship to return to their country, 
bringing with them their families, including their wives and male 
and female children. Last night a little girl of the age of two 
years died, and this morning at ten o'clock the body was wrapped 
in cloth and brought to the stairs of the ship, where preparations 
were made to bury it in the water. The captain performed the 
duties of priest, put on his complimentary clothes and sword, and 
taking off his hat uncovered his head while he read the prayers. 
The officers, about fifteen in number, took off their hats also and 
prayed. A cannon-shot was fastened to the corpse and it was 
then buried in the sea, while all the spectators made sour noses." 

In mentioning the bill of fare, he alludes to liam as " hotui," 
literally, " fire thigh." 

On arriving at Ceylon notice of the arrival was published in 
the newspapers there, and is alluded to by him as follows : 

" This morning the master of the hotel sent us the newspaper 
which was published the day before. In it our countrymen's 
journeys to the Western countries, our entrance into port the day 
before, and arrival on shore the day before was wi'itten. This is 
entirely done to make monej'^ by, and for no other purpose, and 
as by chronicles of the talk of the town it is only light and flimsy 
and not to be relied upon, but the quickness of its appearance was 
astonishing." 

While in Paris there is an entry as follows : 

" To-day met the physician to the King of Holland at the 
hotel. He is rather more than fifty years old ; he has read Chi- 
nese books, and also understands some Japanese ; so we commu- 
nicated with him by writing and also conversed a little, and, al- 
though it was like scratching an itching place through one's shoe, 
yet it afforded some little pleasure to the heart of the trav- 
eller." 

18 



274 COFFEE. 

In describing the audience with the Emperor and Empress, he 
says : 

"After passing through about three rooms we came to the 
audience-hall, where the Emperor, Empress, and Imperial Prince 
were seated. Outside of the throne were a immber of female 
officials arranged in line ; some among them had theatre-glasses, 
with which they used to look at our countrymen, who felt conse- 
quently much confused." 

In describing the theatre in the palace at Yei-sailles, he says : 

"At the rear of the building was a room like our dancing- 
pleasure place, where Japanese nobles amuse themselves with 
dance-girls, which is used for acting plays before the Emperor." 

In alluding to their reception at Dover, m England, he says : 

" Then there came forth from the crowd a man about fifty 
years of age, who walked and hopped about like a sparrow, and 
sending forth a loud voice, cried : ' Yapanishee ; ' this person 
came formerly to Hakodate and dwelt there. He is an English- 
man, and now stepping from the crowd to congratulate our coun- 
trymen on their safe arrival, took off his hat, and holding it in 
his hand, shouted in a high voice : ' Peyapeppe hore ' (hi]:), hip, 
hurrah) ; the meaning of which is not clear, but it appears to be 
a congratulatory expression. Upon this all united in the same 
sound with one voice. Thus they welcomed us without cease by 
shouting in a loud voice in a most unpleasant manner." 

In speaking of the furnishing of the hotel in London, he says : 

" In every room, on the round table, was placed one copy of 
the whole book of the 'New Covenants translated into Chinese. 
I had heard of this before, which is, in fact, the book of the reli- 
gion of the Western foreigners ; a knowledge of it ought to be 
hated and disliked very much." 

In speaking of London, he says : 

" Of soldiers who go around at night there are twelve thou- 
sand (policemen), who do this to prevent robberies and fires and 
spies from hostile countries." 

In speaking of the paintings and decorations at "Windsor Cas- 
tle, he says : 

" Here on the walls were hung several thousand framed pic- 
tures of landscapes, angels, men, birds, beasts, flowers, trees, 



APPENDIX. 275 

fruits, and vegetables. They were all accurately done, and cer- 
tainly very admirable ; in fact, all might be called wonderful, but 
foreigners only honor those who represent things as they really 
are, and respect what is like something with material form ; they 
do not understand anything of the voices of spirits and the mani- 
festations of the gods. Well, well, it is a great pity ! " 

While in London, he says : 

" I went this afternoon to Kegent's Park, name of a place. 
This is the garden which I spoke of before, where numerous fam- 
ilies of large and small birds, beasts, fishes, and reptiles are col- 
lected. The extent of it is about six hundred yards square. In 
all the Western countries these birds and beast gardens, plant and 
tree gardens, universal-things-halls (museums), etc., are main- 
tained by the government, and the lower classes are permitted to 
go in and look ; wherefore, I think that these places are made in 
order to please the common people, and at the same time to 
profit them by increasing their knowledge of universal things. 
But from every spectator they take a little sight-money, accord- 
ing to the barbarous custom of always trying to make a profit, 
which we should think very mean. Ah ! ah ! If they gain by 
it, they also lose. To adopt what is proper and to reject that 
which is bad, how fine a thing this is." 

Tlie diary is continued at great length, but the above will 
enable us to " see ourselves as others see us " — not a bad thing to 
do occasionally. Although expressed in quaint and unfamiliar 
language, coupled with occasional errors, yet underlying the wdiole 
of it there is a basis of good sense, coupled with an eminent spirit 
of fairness which I believe to be representative of Japanese 
character. 



A JAPANESE DINNER ^JAPANESE PRODUCTS, PROGRESS, ETC. 

Accepting the invitation of a Japanese friend who had resided 
some years in America, we were conducted to a hotel, or restau- 
rant, pleasantly situated upon the banks of the river Sumida, 
which flows through the eastern portion of Tokio (Yedo). Re- 
moving our shoes, according to the invariable custom of the Japa- 
nese, we were shown into a clean, airy, upper room, looking out 



276* COFFEE. 

upon the river. We were asked if we would take a bath, which 
we declined, and our friend then explained to us that the Japa- 
nese, in hot weather, usually take a bath before dining, and after- 
ward don a loose robe of thin, gauzy material, which is furnished 
by the proprietor of the hotel, and which they wear during the 
meal. We seated ourselves cross-legged upon the floor, which was 
covered with matting, the only furniture in the room. While 
waiting for the meal to be prepared, a small bronze brazier, or 
vessel, containing burning charcoal, was brought in, together with 
tiny Japanese pipes and mild Japanese tobacco, with which we 
were expected to amuse ourselves until the arrival of the first 
course, which consisted of sweetmeats called quashi, and was 
served upon small lacquered plates, placed upon trays, or tables, 
about three inches high, composed of the same material. It is 
hard to describe the character of these sweetmeats, but one of 
them was a small square or brick of a kind of jelly, of a golden 
color ; another was a small scarlet ball, of a substance that tasted 
not unlike our marsh-mallow confections, and the third was of 
greenish color, and somewhat similar in taste. We understood 
that the ingredients of which these were composed were princi- 
pally rice-flour and sugar. With this course tea was served in 
delicate porcelain cups, upon each of which was a fragment of a 
Japanese poem, or legend, of which the following is a specimen : 

" How many times, my host, do you laugh in the month ? 

" Whenever we meet, we ought to have a pleasant time. 

" You see that the beauties of spring vanish as running 
water ; 

" And the flower that scatters to the wind to-day opened but 
yesterday." 

The second course was " chawan-mori," a sort of soup with 
eggs, somewhat similar to soup " a la Colbert." It was served in 
a bowl, but no spoons were provided, it being expected that the 
guests would use chop-sticks for the eggs and drink from the bowl 
the liquid portion. This soup was by no means unpalatable, and 
with a spoon would have been considered quite tolerable anywhere. 

The third course was composed of a variety of fish with the 
collective name of "kuchi-tori sakana;" the first was a kind of 
shell-fish (awabi) ; the second the meat of the lobster (ebi) ; and 



APPENDIX. 277 

witli these, served as a relish, was a small fruit called '• youzo," a 
species of citron 

The fourth course consisted of a sweetened preparation of 
boiled beans, served with green ginger-root, and another variety 
of fish called " tai," fried. 

The fifth course, called " sachi-mi," consisted of raw fish, 
served upon a delicate lattice-work of glass, and accompanied with 
two kinds of sauce, one dark in color, salt in flavor, and tasting as 
if composed of soy and anchovies, the other a preparation of 
horse-radish. 

The sixth course was called "miza-gai," and consisted of 
" koi," a variety of boiled fish, seiwed with pears and a kind of 
raw shell-fish, very much resembling our American scallops, cut 
in small squares. 

The seventh course was composed of rice served perfectly 
plain, in small porcelain cups ; this is called " meshi." 

The eighth and last course, called " skemono," was a sort of 
salad, composed of egg-plants and small cucumbers 

With each course, after the first, was served "saki," a fer- 
mented liquor manufactured from rice, and, in character, some- 
thino; between ale and wine. Some writers have fallen into the 
error of describing " saki " as a distilled liquor, but M'e were 
assured that this is not correct, and it is made by a process some- 
what similar to brewing. 

It is not disagreeable in flavor, but has a larger percentage of 
alcohol than our malt liquors, and exhilarates more quickly. In- 
deed, in this respect, it is somewhat similar to champagne. It is 
served hot from small porcelain vases, and it may be said to be 
the national drink of the Japanese. 

"When near the end of the dinner we were surprised by the 
appearance of some singing-girls, who proceeded to favor us with 
some music. They sang in the nasal falsetto tone common in the 
East, and accompanied themselves upon an instrument resembling 
a guitar, called Chami-Sen (or Shamisen). It has three strings, 
which are struck or thumbed with a piece of ivory somewhat re- 
sembling a paper-cutter. One of these girls also accompanied the 
imisic with a sort of dance, consisting of a series of graceful mo- 
tions that were half pantomime and half posturing. 



278 COFFEE. 

It may be summed up tliat, as an entertainment, it was pleas- 
ing from its novelty, but the menu would hardly be called satis- 
factory to a European palate. 

Fish and rice are the staple articles of Japanese diet, and 
without either of these the nation would find it hard to exist. 
The soil is fertile, and apparently vegetables grow well here. 
Sweet potatoes, ordinary potatoes, turnips, carrots, squashes or 
pumpkins, egg-plants, and pears are grown, but do not enter 
largely into the people's diet. Beans are an important article, 
and from these is manufactured tofu or tofe, literally bean cheese, 
an article which is largely used by the poorer classes, and which 
is peddled from door to door as berries and vegetables are in 
America. Hadishes are also grown to some extent, and some 
varieties of them are very large and not unlike beets. They are 
rather coarse in grain and texture, but not so much so as their 
size might indicate. The young bamboo is also eaten to some 
extent, and a variety of mushrooms are used in making sauces and 
relishes. A species of maize is raised, but it is very inferior to 
the American Indian corn, and is not used to any great extent. 
Tomatoes have been introduced from the United States within 
the last few years, and are received w^ith considerable favor. 
Cakes and unleavened bread of various kinds are made from rice 
flour, and at the seaports bread made from flour imported from 
California is beginning to be used by the natives. 

Of fruits, oranges, peaches, pears, apricots, plums, persimmons, 
raspberries, mulberries, and currants are indigenous here, but 
none of them grow in great perfection, and most of them are 
quite inferior in quality. Apples and strawberries have been in- 
troduced to some extent from other countries, but, although they 
can be grown here, do not seem to take kindly to the soil. The 
pears are round, mostly of a russet color, coarse in grain, not 
sweet, and seem to be a sort of cross between the apple and the 
pear. Water and musk melons are largely grown, but these are 
also inferior to the American productions of the same kind. The 
climate is not unlike that of our middle States, but there is more 
moisture, which keeps the vegetation constantly green. The 
general impression which one gets on coming here is that Japan 
is a beautiful country, and that her inhabitants are making 



APPENDIX. 279 

great efforts to adopt what is best and most progressive among 
other nations. Eailroads and telegraphs have been constructed 
between principal cities in the interior, steamship lines estab- 
hshed along the coast and to Chhia, lighthouses erected and 
connected by telegraph with the prhicipal ports of entry, har- 
bors improved, breakwaters constructed, mines opened, and a 
mint established, besides which the entire administration of 
government has been changed ; a judicial and police system based 
upon the French, an educational and postal system like that of 
America has been adopted, while the army has adopted the Prus- 
sian and the navy the English system of organization and tactics. 
In short, they have taken the best from the organizations of the 
principal nations of the earth, and utilized it for the benefit of the 
Japanese people, and the wonderful part is that all this has been 
done within ten years. It is said that the Mikado also contem- 
plated the adoption of a state religion, and with this view sent for 
leading missionaries of the different Christian sects resident in 
Japan to confer with them, but they differed so widely in their 
views, each claiming that they were right while all the others were 
wrong, that the Mikado concluded that there was more of the 
spirit of peace and goodwill in the Buddhist and Shintu beliefs 
than in the religion of " the Westerns." 



CHINESE NOTES. 



Steamer Nagota Mart:, 
Off Coast op China, September 31, 1S76. 

I was awakened this morning by our stopping to take on 
board the pilot. Looking from the window of my state-room, 
I saw that the water was yellow with mud, and I knew that we 
must be in the " Yellow Sea of China " and nearing shore — the 
shores of a country that have been a romantic mystery to me all 
the days of my life. The "Celestial Empire" and "flowery 
land " of my boyhood's dreams, whence came our tea and silk ! 
The land of great walls and porcelain pagodas, of Shanghai roost- 



280 COFFEE. 

ers and fire-crackers ! How I used to dream of the time wlien I 
would "grow big" and enjoj an eternal elysium of tlie latter — 
"have just as many as I wanted;" and how well I remember 
when a short, stumpy boy at school, who was my particular an- 
tipathy, described the difference in our build by maliciously call- 
ing me " Shanghai ! " and how I tried to get even with him by 
retorting "Shorty!" How, as I grew older, the romance sur- 
rounding this country was heightened by my becoming familiar 
with the saying, " When our ship comes home from China," 
and learned that with the occurrence of that auspicious event 
every wish, no matter how extravagant, could be gratified. Later, 
when I came to New York, a green country boy, the illusion was 
kept up by finding that the richest and most noted merchants 
were in the " China trade ; " the Careys, the Lows, the Olyphants, 
the Cryders, and a host of others, were living illustrations and 
confirmations of all I had heard and read — veritable " China As- 
ters." And so I am prepared to appreciate and enjoy the magnifi- 
cent, the wonderful, the Celestial Empire which I am so rapidly 
approaching. I remember now something about my geography 
saying that Shanghai is situated near the mouth of the " Yang- 
tse-kiang " River ; how hard it used to be for me to pronounce 
that jaw-breaker ! Lideed I never could do it except in connection 
with the " Hoang-ho," the other great river of China, and I used 
to sit for hours ringing the changes upon thes'e two names. But 
we have passed the lightship, crossed the bar, and are entering 
the mouth of the river — the Yang-tse, from which we pass into 
the Woosung, a branch of the Yang-tse, upon which Shang- 
hai is built, some fourteen miles up from the sea. The shores 
are low, densely populated, and carefully cultivated on each side. 
As we pass along, the Chinese fishermen are letting curious nets 
down into the water from off bamboo stagings, each of which has 
a funny little crow's nest of a booth to shelter the fishermen. 
Chinese cattle, wdth curious horns projecting straight back from 
the head, and birds, which are unfamiliar to us, are seen at 
intervals as we sail along. Presently the masts of large class 
shipping become visible over a low neck of land, rounding which 
we enter the harbor of Shanghai. 



APPEISTDIX. 281 

SHANGnAi, SeptemlDer 24, 1876. 

Steamers and sailing vessels are lying at the wharves, and 
farther down are anchored in the stream opposite the " Bund " 
(the street lying along the river). This is lined with substantial 
buildings, some of them magnificent in their size and solidity, 
and presenting, as far as the eye can reach, a handsome and impos- 
ing appearance. Other streets running back from the water are 
built up closely with heavy, solid stone buildings for a distance of 
several squares. This is the foreign settlement or "concession," 
as it is called. Back of this lies the native city, containing about 
a quarter of a million inhabitants. Below the foreign shipping 
in the stream is a forest of masts belonging to the native junks, 
of. which, seemingly, there are thousands. These penetrate to 
every part of the empire through the great system of canals (of 
which China has more miles than any other country on the globe), 
and have much to do with making Shanghai the great commer- 
cial entrepot that she is. Some of the sailing vessels at anchor in 
the stream are of the veritable old clipper-ship type, which, be- 
fore the days of screw steamers, monopolized the carrying trade 
of the East. It does one good to look at them, even now, with 
their beautiful models and tall, gracefully tapered spars — " sky- 
scrapers " we used to call them ; but they have had their day, and 
all-conquering steam now rules even the furthermost parts of the 
globe. Just before us lie the handsome steamers of the " Penin- 
sula and Oriental" and the "Messageries Maritimes" lines, which 
furnish direct through steam comnmnication with Liverpool and 
Marseilles weekly. Along the " French Bund," as it is called, 
for nominally the Bund is divided into the French, American, 
and English concessions, lie the steamboats of the " Shanghai 
Steam Navigation Company," which ply upon the " Yang-tse," 
and once controlled the entire trade of that great I'iver. They 
are of American build, on the familiar model of our river and 
sound steamboats, and are largely owned by American capital. 
They still do a large and remunerative trade, but have to sustain 
a vigorous opposition from an English company which was organ- 
ized some few years since, and it is understood that the invest- 
ment does not now pay nearly so well as it once did. Indeed, all 
commerce here appears to be in a very depressed state, and the 



282 COFFJEE. 

great mercliants wlio formerly controlled tliis trade so absolutely 
that it was almost a monopoly, have been steadily losing money 
for a term of years, and speak anything but encouragingly of the 
future. Some of the great buildings along the Bund are unten- 
anted, and many of them are for sale. It is claimed by some that 
ocean cables and steam communication have ruined the China 
trade. Doubtless it has spoiled the monopoly which the few once 
enjoyed, but at the same time it has opened the ti-ade to many 
who do not despise the closer margins that now prevail every- 
where in the commercial world. It is an easy life that residents 
here have been living, and it is possible that in the future a closer 
competition for trade may make greater exertions necessary. To 
one who has been used to the bustling, business life of 'New York, 
it seems as if there were several men here employed to do one 
man's work. Every clerk has his assistant in the shape of a Chi- 
naman, or " boy," as he is called here, to run at his beck and 
call, to pull a punkah (a large fan) over him to create a breeze 
when it is warm, and even to perform the personal services of a 
valet. The Anglo-Saxon race loves to take its ease, and it soon 
becomes a sort of second nature to accept and even demand these 
little " conveniences." Chinese barbers come to your room to 
shave you, and a resident here informed me that his "boy" al- 
ways shaved him before he got up in the morning, and that, if he 
did it so unskilfully as to wake him np, he used to kick him. All 
the waiters and coolies here are called " boys," no matter how old 
they may be. It sounds strangely to American ears to hear this, 
but at our hotel the other day, I heard a little toddler of not more 
than four or five years shouting " boy " quite lustily, to attract the 
attention of a hotel waiter old enongh to be his grandfather, and 
he afterward ordered him about as peremptorily as he would a 
pet dog or kitten. 

To-day we visited the native city. It is simply a conglomera- 
tion of little wooden structures, huddled together, apparently 
without plan or design. The streets are simply narrow lanes, 
not wide enough for any wheeled vehicles, and reeking with dirt 
and smells in every direction. It is surrounded by a high brick 
wall, and intersected here and there with small canals, which, ap- 
parently, are the only means of carrying off the refuse of the city. 



APPENDIX. 283 

On each side of these narrow lanes are situated the native shops, 
which are also manufactories and the dwellings of the people. 
Shops for the sale of curious ivory carvings, medicine, coffins, 
dry-goods, groceries, and every conceivable thing which these 
people use, were crowded together in every direction, as far as we 
went. Restaurants and tea-houses are frequent, and occasionally 
one comes to a temple or joss-house. In every corner is placed a 
little booth for the sale of something or other. One of these we 
noticed had a large stock of crickets or singing grasshoppers, 
each one enclosed in a little bamboo-basket, and all were singing 
in a shrill, piercing note, like that of the locusts and "katydids" 
at home. We were told that they were great favorites with chil- 
dren here, and it is said that the women also keep them as pets, 
and amuse themselves occasionally by making one cricket fight 
another, waging considerable sums upon the result. Upon the 
whole, my first impressions of China are not very favorable ; no 
fault of China, perhaps, but of my imagination. Another illus- 
tration of the truth there is in the saying that there is more en- 
joyment in anticipation than in realization. However, I may, 
before leaving this country, have reason to change my present 
imDressions. 



TEA CULTURE IN CHINA. 

The methods followed in cultivating tea in China are almost 
precisely similar to those pursued in Japan, a detailed account 
of which was given in a previous letter. There is some differ- 
ence, however, in the mode of preparation, and, indeed, this varies 
considerably in China in different districts, which produce different 
kinds of tea. The leaf, however, is essentially the same all over 
China, and all the different varieties of black and green are pro- 
duced by a difference in the curing and manipulation. In certain 
districts, howevei', they are more in the habit of producing special 
kinds, unless the market should so shape that some other va- 
riety commands a better price ; when it does, the production 
changes at will from green to black or black to green. The great 
tea-producing sections are in the interior of China, and more 



284 COFFEE. 

largely in the sections tributary to the Yang-tse-kiang River than 
any other. The tea is mostly grown by small proprietors or far- 
mers, who cure it suiRciently to transport it to the native dealers, 
who collect and ship it to the treaty ports, where it is again sold 
to the large dealers, who refire it, assort it into grades, and, in 
turn, sell it to the foreign merchants, wdio export it to the different 
parts of the world. 

When it is first picked, if destined for green teas, it is thinly 
spread npon bamboo trays and exposed to the sun for an hour or 
two, then thrown into firing-pans and rapidly moved about for, 
perhaps, five minutes. The heat de^'elops the moisture and 
thoroughly w^ilts the leaves, which are then drawn quickly out 
and placed upon the rolling-tables. They are then rolled with 
the hands (and sometimes with the feet) in such a way as to pro- 
duce the style of tea most desired — a more circular motion being 
necessary for " Gunpowders " and " Imperials " than for " Young 
Hysons " and " Hysons." They are then replaced in the firing-pans 
and kept moving by the rapid motion of the hands of the work- 
men for a length of time, vaiying somewhat with the degree of 
heat, but usually for an hour and a half or two hours. The leaves 
are then quite well dried and their color fixed, and it may now be 
said to be a natural-colored green tea. After.it gets into the 
hands of the large native merchants at the shipping ports, how- 
ever, it is refired, and during this process a little coloring matter 
is added — principally gypsum and indigo — in order to give it the 
handsome, glossy "face," such as is popular in the American 
market. With black teas the treatment is entirely different, the 
leaves being simply dried by the producer, during which process 
the tea is slightly rolled ; and it remains in this condition until it 
reaches the hands of the wholesale merchant, who refires it and 
manipulates it in such a way as to materially change the flavor. 
Indeed, it may be said that this manipulation at the tea-firing 
"go-downs" is the most important part of the process, as different 
flavors can be produced at will, and upon the assorting and sifting 
depends the fineness of each grade. In some sections, during this 
manipulation by the large dealers, artificially flavored teas are 
produced. In Canton we saw large quantities of tea of ordinary 
quality being scented by flowers gathered from a variety of jas- 



APPENDIX. 285 

mine, which produces a white, deliciously fragrant blossom. A 
layer of tea is placed in the bottom of a large basket and a few 
flowers scattered upon it, then another layer of tea and another 
layer of flowers, and so on, until the basket is full. The flowers 
are generally placed in the tea in the afternoon, and allowed to 
remain there over night, when it is found that the tea has ab- 
sorbed most of their fragrance, and is certainly very much im- 
proved. The flowers are then removed by sifting, and the tea 
refired to drive off the moisture that it may have gathered from 
the blossoms ; it is then ready for packing. This scenting is 
done with both black and green teas, but probably to a greater 
extent with the varieties known as " Scented Caper " and " Flowery 
Pekoe," which go mostly to England, where they are used for 
mixing purposes. 

During my stay here I have been favored with an inspection 
of the Chinese customs statistics for the past ten years, and have 
collected some interesting facts. Although tea has been a principal 
item in the business of my firm, and I have kept a general run of 
the quantities exported each year to the United States, I never 
had seen an analj'sis ol the total exports, and it therefore proved 
a most interesting study. I found that of the 1,818,000 piculs (a 
picul is 133|- pounds) exported in 1875, 1,438,000 piculs were 
black, 210,000 piculs green, 167,000 piculs " brick," and about 
3,000 piculs " dust." Brick tea goes entirely to Kussia, overland, 
by camel-trains, and instead of being, as I had always supposed, 
a very superior article, it is very inferior in quality, being com- 
posed largely of the dust and siftings from all sorts, kinds, and 
qualities of tea, together with more or less tea of ordinary quality, 
which is also ground up into dust, moistened and compressed into 
shapes somewhat larger than our ordinary building brick. In ad- 
dition to this, Russia takes about 90,000 piculs of black tea, consist- 
ing almost entirely of Congous, of which about 38,000 piculs go 
overland and 52,000 by sea, principally to Odessa. There are 
also considerable quantities of both leaf and brick taken overland 
to Siberia and Mongolia, the quantity of this exported being esti- 
mated for the year 1875 at 22,000 piculs of leaf tea, and 125,000 
of brick tea. I had always supposed that Russia took considerable 
quantities of green tea, but I find that all of the leaf teas imported 



286 . COFFEE. 

by her are Congous. America is the largest consumer of green 
tea, she having taken, in 1875, 130,000 piculs, against 70,000 
piculs for England and 77,000 for India, no other country taking 
any green tea to any considerable amount. In blacks, however, 
America makes but a poor showing — namely, 92,000 piculs in 
1875, against 1,100,000 for Great Britain, 106,000 for Australia, 
88,000 for Russia, 12,000 for the Continent of Europe, 10,000 for 
New Zealand, 10,000 for Java, 3,800 for South Africa, 3,400 for 
British America, 2,200 for Cochin-China, 2,000 for Singapore 
and the Straits, 1,000 for Siam, 900 for Japan, 200 for India, and 
a few scatterings. Of all this immense quantity of black tea, only 
117,000 piculs are Oolong, 1,189,000 are Congou, 41,000 Souchong, 
35,000 Pouchong, 1,900 Flowery Pekoe, 37 Orange Pekoe, 46,000 
Scented Caper, and 1,100 mixed. Of the 91,903 piculs taken by 
America, 16,778 are Congou, 69,586 Oolong, 3,647 Souchong, 
1,812 Pouchong, 24 of Orange Pekoe, and 56 of mixed. 

I could go on making a further analysis and comparison of 
figures, which might be of interest to the trade, but it is said that 
" figures are dry " and " comparisons are odious," and I am fearful 
of tiring the reader with too many of them. By the foregoing, 
however, it will be seen that Great Britain is the great consumer 
of tea ; that the United States comes next, and Russia third, while 
the whole Continent of Europe, aside from Russia, takes but 
12,360 piculs — less than one-eighth of the quantity taken by 
Australia. London being the great tea mart of the world, it is 
probable that some portion of the immense quantities sent to that 
port are re-exported, but it must be remembered that, in addition 
to all tlie tea which England imports from China, she receives about 
31,000,000 pounds, or 233,000 piculs, grown in her own possessions 
(India). This also was mostly Congou or Souchong. The United 
States also hnported about 25,000,000 pounds, or 188,000 piculs, 
from Japan ; and, in looking over these figures, it becomes ap- 
parent that about ninety per cent, of all the tea exported from 
China, Japan, and India is consumed by people speaking the 
English language, and of this over seventy-five per cent, is taken 
by Great Britain and her colonies. 

The production of tea has very largely increased during the 
past ten years, probably in a greater ratio than that of any other of 



APPENDIX. 287 

the groat staples of commerce. At the risk of tiring the reader, I 
append the figures showing tlie export of tea from China to for- 
eign countries for the past ten years : Piculs — in 1866, 1,192,138 ; 
1867, 1,330,974; 1868, 1,475,210; 1869, 1,528,149; 1870, 
1,380,998 ; 1871, 1,679,643 ; 1872, 1,774,663 ; 1873, 1,617,763 ; 
1874, 1,735,379 ; 1875, 1,818,387. By this it will be seen that 
the quantity exported from China has increased in ten years about 
fifty per cent., and to this great increase must be added the tea 
exported from India and Japan, amounting last year to about 
120,000 piculs, where ten years ago little or none was exported. 
Putting these figures together, we find that the available supply 
has increased in ten years nearly one hundred per cent. It can- 
not be said that the consumption has increased in anything like 
the same ratio. Have we not, therefore, in these figures a satis- 
factory reason for the great decline in the prices of tea during 
this period — a decline which many of the old merchants in the 
tea trade have claimed to be excessive, and for which they pro- 
fess they can see no good reason ? It is probable, also, that this 
material reduction in the cost of tea has had more or less to do 
with influencing the coffee market. Three or four years ago a 
short crop in some of the principal coffee-producing countries 
was made the pretext, both in Europe and America, for largely 
advancing the price. Gravely written articles appeared in the 
most influential commercial journals in Europe and America, 
claiming that the consumption of coffee was increasing much 
faster than the production, and that this range of prices was not 
onl}' legitimate, but that prices would probably attain a still higher 
range. Experience, however, has shown that the high prices 
stimulated production in all coffee-producing countries ; the avail- 
able supply everywhere increased, and the tremendous decline in the 
price of tea, making that by far the cheaper beverage, was " the last 
straw that broke the camel's back," and prices tumbled. Whether 
they will soon rise again or not depends, of course, somewhat 
upon circumstances ; but all the indications at present point to in- 
creased production and a low range of prices in these two arti- 
cles, which constitute so large an item in the domestic economy 
of the world. 



288 COFFEE. 



CHESrESE MAJSWEKS, CUSTOMS, ANT) PECTJLIAillTIES. 

From Shanghai to Hong-Kong is 819 miles, but the fine 
steamer Ava, of the '' Messageries Maritimes " line, upon which 
we took passage, made this distance in sixtj-three hours — not a 
bad run for a heavily laden screw steamer. The cargo of this 
ship, by the way, is itself worthy of mention, being composed al- 
most entirely of raw silk, which China merchants were hunying 
forward to the French market, in order to avail themselves of 
the very high prices now ruling. The cargo of the Ava con- 
sisted of about ten thousand bales, worth, upon an average, over 
five hundred dollars a bale, or, in round numbers. Jive millions 
for the cargo. It is said to be the most valuable cargo ever car- 
ried by any ship. At any rate, $5,000,000 represents a goodly 
number of eggs to be carried in one basket. Soon after leaving 
Shanghai, the coast, which, at the mouth of the " Yang-tse " is 
low and flat, rises into a rugged range of mountains, which con- 
tinues, with now and then a break, all the way to Hong-Kong. 
For the greater distance we passed quite close to the coast, which 
was fairly lined with a continuous fleet of quaint Chinese fishing- 
junks, which, when occasion offers, take a hand in piracy as well. 
At first I was inclined to doubt the stories wdiich I heard of their 
enterprises in this line, but the records at Hong-Kong show that 
it is only about six years since they captured a sailing-vessel at 
the very entrance of the harbor of Hong-Kong, and now, not- 
withstanding the coast is closely patrolled by gunboats of both 
the Chinese and foreign governments, any vessel that goes ashore, 
or becomes disabled along the Chinese coast, is in great danger of 
being captured. It is not often that these rascals are taken, as, 
with their knowledge of every bay and inlet on the coast, and the 
light draught of water of their junks, it is quite diflicult to fol- 
low them successfully ; but occasionally a junk is caught outside 
that cannot give account of itself, and it is taken to Hong-Kong 
and dealt with according to law. The following advertisement, 
which I clipped from the Hong-Kong Press of September 26 th, 
illustrates an occasion of this kind : 



APPENDIX. 
PUBLIC AUCTION. 



In the Vice- Admiralty Court of Hong-Kong, In Re SUNDRY PIRATI- 
CAL GOODS AND THE JUNK " SING WOH LOONG." 



The Undersigned has received instructions from Malcolm Struan Ton- 
Nocnv, Esq., Marshal of the above Court, to Sell under a Decree of Appraise- 
ment and Sale, at 3 o'clock P.M., 

THIS DAY, 
the 2Gth September, 1876, at Yow-ma-tee, — 

ONE JUNK, 
SUNDRY CLOTHING, MUSKETS, SWORDS, &c., &c., 

Terms of Sale. — Cash before delivery in Mexican Dollars, weighed at 7.1.7. 
All Lots, with all faults and errors of description, at purchaser's risk on the fall 
of the hammer. 

J. M. ARMSTRONG, 

Government Auctioneer. 
Hong-Kong, 25th September, 1876. 

Hong-Kong is a pretty little citj, nestled close down upon the 
shores of one of the most beautiful bays in the world, and under 
the shadow of steep liills, whose peaks seem almost to overhang 
the city. It is an English colony, but included in the two or 
three thousands of foreign population is a sprinkling of almost 
every nation under the sun ; France, Spain, Russia, and Germany 
all contribute their quota, and the variety is made up with Parsee 
merchants from India, Portuguese from Macao, Malays from the 
Peninsula and Straits, and the ever-present Chinese, who have 
gathered upon this little island, and clustered around the outskirts 
of the foreign settlement, until they now number upward of two 
hundred thousand. Among them are some of the shrewdest and 
wealthiest merchants in China. One man was pointed out to me 
who began his business life as a " comprador," and by his shrewd- 
ness and application has acquired a large fortune, owning quite a 
fleet of steamers, which ply, not only between Chinese ports, but 
the principal cities of the East. The " comprador," by the way, 
is an institution in Chinese commercial matters. " Comprador" is 
a Spanish word, signifying buyer, and in Chinese commercial life 
the " comprador" is not onl}^ a buyer but also a seller and general 
business manager ; and while nominally occupying a subordinate 
capacity in the great houses of the East, he is the active business 
man through whose hands most of the business of the house 
19 



290 COFFEE. 

passes. It is said that he has a keen eye for commissions or bro- 
kerages, and in addition to his salary, takes them from both buyer 
and seller. Certain it is that some of the " compradors " here are 
reputed to wield a larger capital than the houses whom they nomi- 
nally serve. The necessity for the " comprador " originally grew out 
of the inability of foreign merchants to speak Chinese sufficiently 
well to conduct their business with the native merchants. It was, 
therefore, found necessary to employ a capable Chinaman, who 
could speak English, to facilitate these negotiations, and the "com- 
prador" gradually became an institution. A few years ago an 
effort was made by the leading foreign houses to do without them 
and educate their clerks, so that they would be able to perform the 
" comprador's " functions ; but it failed, and the " comprador's " in- 
fluence is now again supreme. 

There are many peculiarities in life here in the East which 
impress a visitor as being novel and curious. Sedan chairs, sus- 
pended on two long poles, the ends of which are placed on the 
shoulders of two coolies, are the means generally employed for 
getting about — no wheeled vehicles, not even jinrihslias^ having 
yet been employed to any extent for this purpose. On the water, 
" sampans," a species of boat, are used, and in their way they are 
quite as much of a curiosity as the chairs. In China they are 
somewhat different from the Japanese sampan, and those in 
Hong-Kong are modelled more after the fashion of an ordinary 
boat. In the centre of them, however, most of them have an 
awning or canopy, to shield passengers from the sun and rain, 
while the ends are occupied by those who propel the boat. These 
are largely women and children. Indeed, whole families make 
these sampans their home, both by day and night. In a little 
locker, in one end, they keep a small brazier for cooking their 
meals, and they eat, sleep, and raise families within this narrow 
compass. It is no uncommon thing to see a woman sculling a 
boat with a young infant strapped upon her back, and children 
which an American mother w^ould feel sure were in imminent 
danger of falling overboard, take a hand in propelling or steering 
the boat. Children, from one to three years of age, may be 
seen toddling about with a small buoy or life-preserver, composed 
of cork or other light material, strapped upon their breasts, so 



APPENDIX. 291 

that in the event of their tumbling" overboard they will not sink ; 
and occasionally an unruly youngster of this age is seen with a 
string, one end of which is tied around his body and the other 
fastened to a ring-bolt, or other fixture of the boat, by which he 
can be hauled in, in case of falling into the water. Thousands 
of people thus live, and apparently thrive, in a way which to a 
European is incomprehensible. All these boats have eyes painted 
upon them near the bow, and further north this custom prevails 
universally. It is, doubtless, connected with some Chinese super- 
stition, although I have not been able to ascertain precisely what 
it is. The story is current of a Chinaman who, being asked the 
reason for the custom, replied : " Junk no have eye, how can 
see ? No can see, how can sabe?" (Understand, or know.) 

The language known as " pigeon English," is also a queer in- 
stitution. Originally growing out of the attempts of the Chinese 
to speak English, many imperfect and senseless expressions came to 
have a given significance and meaning, and to these, additions have 
gradually been made until now a recognized dialect has been formed, 
which is composed of all sorts of words, fi'om all sorts of languages, 
but which is sufficiently perfect for ordinary communication be- 
tween the natives and foreigners. Two prominent words in the 
vocabulary are "pigeon" and "catchee." With a Chinaman all 
business is " pigeon," and " catchee " signifies get. A Chinaman, 
desiring to ask you what business you are doing here, says, 
" What pigeon catchee you ? " If you wish to tell a Chinese waiter 
to get two bananas and leave them up stairs in your room, you 
say, " Go catchee banana two piecee and leave my room top side." 
If he cannot get any, he comes back and reports, " jSTo can catchee." 
Or " Bring me a glass of water " may be translated, " Go catchee 
one glass water, come bring this side." 

The life of Europeans here is very different from that at 
home. A cup of coffee, with perhaps a little toast and eggs, is 
served in the morning at seven or eight o'clock, and between 
twelve and one o'clock the regular breakfast takes place, some- 
times called " tiffin " or lunch, but which is really a substantial 
dinner. At 7.30 p.m., dinner is served, which is a heavy meal, 
not materially difPering from tiffin. I have not yet gotten used 
to the heavy meals so late at night, but it seems to agree with 



292 COFFEE. 

those who live here, and probably has some good reason for 
having become a custom, although as yet I have heard none. As 
a rule, foreigners here take life easily, and I think enjoy more 
real comfort than in any place I have ever seen. Every dining- 
table has a " punkah " hung over it, which, during meal time, is 
pulled backward and forward by a boy, and a comfortable breeze 
thus constantly maintained. 

The " pyjama " is also an institution not known in America. It 
consists of a loose garment, made of silk or other very light material, 
made up in two pieces, one being a pair of wide, loose di-awers, 
and the other a sort of a jacket or shirt. They are very neatly 
made, and make quite a respectable suit ; they are worn in place 
of night-gowns at night and in the privacy of one's own house, 
and on shipboard they are used to some extent as a morning and 
evening dress. I speak from personal experience when I state 
that no one knows what the perfection of comfort is until they 
have thrown off their clothes which they have worn during the 
sweltering heat of a tropical day, taken a cool and refreshing bath, 
put on their " pyjama" and sat down to dinner with a good appetite. 

Another feature which attracts the attention of Americans is 
the carrying of everything on poles, instead of upon wheeled 
vehicles, as we do in America. As soon as your trunks are land- 
ed, a rope is passed around them and they are whisked up on 
a pole, and carried on the shoulders of two laborers or coolies, as 
they are called here, who trot off with them quickly and noiselessly. 
All merchandise is handled in the same way, and one often sees 
a heavy package of merchandise suspended on two poles, and car- 
ried by four or more coolies, instead of two, as in the case of the 
smaller and lighter pieces. It is said that much of the tea in the 
back country is thus carried long distances, sometimes hundreds of 
miles to the rivers, where it is placed upon boats and floated down 
to the seaports. 

CANTON MANTTFACTUEES — SWEETMEATS, PRESERVED GINGER, SOT, ETC. 

Many people are familiar with the appearance and taste of 
these articles, and I, in common with many others, have eaten 
them for years, but I had little idea just how they were prepared, 



APPENDIX. 293 

and of what they consisted. So, when in Canton, I made it a part 
of my business to investigate these items. 

The process of making preserved ginger is as follows : The 
ginger root, a large white variety, is first dug and the outer skin 
scraped off. This is chiefly done in the country surromiding Can- 
ton, where it is raised. It is then shipped down to the city in 
boats, carefully washed, and thrown into large kettles, where it is 
boiled for about twenty-four hours. It is then taken out and 
thrown into salt water, and allowed to remain there about twenty- 
four hours more. After this it is taken out, the rough edges 
trimmed off with a knife, and thrown upon tables, which are 
surrounded with operators, holding in each hand a kind of three- 
pronged fork, with which they prick the root until it is thoroughly 
punctured through and through. It is then washed in fresh water 
and dried in the sun for a time, after which it is again placed in 
large kettles, containing about an equal weight of sugar, and boiled 
for about twelve hours ; it is then taken from the kettles and 
put into large earthen jars. The syrup is poured over it, and it 
is allowed to remain therein for several days — sometimes weeks — 
when it is boiled up again for a short time, and is then ready for 
packing. It is put up in jars and half -jars, such as all dealers 
are familiar with, and packed in cases containing six jars or twelve 
half -jars. 

In all the various manipulations the Chinese are particularly 
dexterous. I was much interested in watching the process of put- 
ting the network of rattan over the jars, by which they are carried 
and handled. A workman would seize a piece of rattan, twist it 
into two rings just big enough to go over the top and bottom, 
and with another slender strip would weave a network between 
these two rings so quickly that I could hardly believe that it had 
been accomplished by an individual, and not by some marvellous 
machine. The pasting of the papers over the tops of the jars is 
also a curious piece of work. One end of a long strip of paper is 
first stuck to the edge of the jar, and the strip is then twisted 
over and over, each time receiving a little dab of paste, until the 
jar is hermetically sealed, and all this is done with such exceeding 
quickness and dexterity that you can hardly follow the motions of 
the operator's hands. 



294 COFFEE. 

" Soy " has always been a mystery to me, as I fancy it lias been 
to most other people who have dealt in or used it. I was there- 
fore anxious to see a soy factory, and, taking a boat one day, we 
proceeded two or three miles up the river to where one w^as in 
operation. I found that the principal ingredient, or base, is a 
white bean known as " pak-toh," which, so far as I could judge, 
is very like any other small white bean. These are boiled, heavily 
salted, and put into big earthen jars, holding, perhaps, half a bar- 
rel each, where they are allowed to remain for about ten days, dur- 
ing which period fermentation takes place. They are then mashed 
up with a species of olive, which is picked and boiled, and this 
mixture is placed in neat cloth bags, into which water is poured 
and allowed to iilter through. The liquid is then taken out, and 
placed in clean jars, and thickened with a heavy -bodied Chinese 
molasses ; and this is soy. Thinned down with water, the Chinese 
use it as a sauce, and al though when thick it is rather disagreeable 
than otherwise, when thin it has certainly a toothsome flavor and 
gives a zest and relish to meats, fish, etc. Most of the soy manu- 
factured here is shipped to England, where it is used in large 
quantities as a base for the manufacture of sauces. 

Tea, silk, and matting are the largest items of manufacture in 
Canton, and of these by far the largest projDortion goes to Eng- 
land and the Continent. America, however, takes large quan- 
tities of matting and considerable silk, but the teas which we im- 
port from China are principally from Shanghai, Foochow, and 
Amoy. Canton is also celebrated for her silk embroideries and 
ivory carvings, and in both of these her workmen are particularly 
skilful. Embroidered crape and silk shawls, which the ladies 
would pronounce "just lovely," and which even the unappreciative 
men admit to be handsome, can be had here at prices w^liich cer- 
tainly show that there is a large profit absorbed somewhere be- 
tween the purchaser in Canton and the fashionable shops on 
Broadway. Ask an American shopkeeper how it is, and he will 
tell you that it is owing to " high duties and the freight, insur- 
ance, and other charges " to which they are subject ; but the duty 
is only sixty per cent., and freight, insurance, and other charges 
will all be covered by ten per cent, more, and there is still a very 
large margin to be accounted for, which can only be done upon 



APPENDIX. 296 

the liypotliesis of large profits to the dealer. However, these ar- 
ticles are liardly as staple as groceries, and perhaps it is wrong to 
eye the margin of profit through grocers' spectacles. 

A VISIT TO CANTON A FLOATIKG CITY FEMALE HOTEL-RUNNERS 

A CHINESE DINNER DOG, AND CAT-MEAT RESTAURANTS CHI- 
NESE TAILORS KITES, CURRENCY AND OTHER PECULIARITIES. 

Canton is situated on the Chan-Kiang, or Canton River, 
eighty-four miles up from the sea. The river is navigable for 
large vessels to this point, but, as there is but little room for 
merchant shipping, the greater part of the important productions 
of Canton are lightered down the river to Whampoa, some four- 
teen miles, where usually a considerable number of vessels are 
waiting for cargoes. For the first forty-five miles the river is 
lined on each side by hills or bluffs of considerable height, but 
higher up the land gradually becomes more level, and expands 
into a wide valley, in which Canton is situated. 

As we approach the city, the first objects seen are the pagodas 
with their many stories towering one above the other, and a 
number of tall, square buildings, several stories higher than those 
by which they are surrounded. These latter we afterward learned 
were pawn-shops, and are substantially built of fire-proof material 
to afford security against fire and thieves. As we proceed up the 
river, the junks and smaller floating craft become more plenty, 
and for a mile or more below the landing-place of the steamers 
the river banks on both sides are lined with a dense mass of these 
craft of all sorts and sizes. As soon as the steamer touched the 
wharf, we were favored with our first experience of a female 
hotel-runner. I saw two young women making for me in a 
precipitate manner, and "wondered what was up," until they 
each exhibited an ivory card, upon one of which was inscribed the 
name of the " Canton Hotel,' ' and on the other that of the " Inter- 
national Hotel." Having decided to go to the latter, a signal from 
our young woman brought a number of assistants, also females, to 
her aid, who seized our trunks and boxes in a jiffy, whisked them 
through the mass of half -naked, struggling and noisy Chinamen 
who were blocking the gangway, pulled the luggage and ourselves 



296 COFFEE. 

both into the neat hotel boat or " sampan," and vigorously scnlled - 
ns across the river to the hotel, which is situated iuimediately 
upon the river-bank, and from the windows of which we could 
look upon the animated and novel scene. The smaller sampans ^ 
or passenger-boats w^ere very generally sculled by women, while 
the larger ones, which carry merchandise, seemed to be propelled 
by men. 

There are thousands and tens of thousands of women employed 
in conveying passengers from one part of the city to another, and 
having no other home at night than the boat they propel during 
the day. The floating population of Canton is certainly a most 
novel and interesting feature, and it is said that there is nothing 
like it in any part of the world. There are passenger-sampans 
and freight-sampans, war-junks and merchant-junks, country 
boats and city boats, and even stationary boats, which are perma- 
nently anchored and used for music-halls, lodging-houses, etc. ; 
but by far the greater part of this immense floating city is, during 
daylight, constantly in motion, plying hither and thither in every 
direction, and presenting a kaleidoscope of form and color long to 
be remembered. Sitting in the reading-room of our hotel at 
almost any time of the day, the sound comes up from this floating 
population " as the noise of a multitude." "Whether you take a 
boat upon the river or a walk upon land, however, one is con- 
stantly impressed with the wonderful industry and activity of 
this people. Everybody seems to be working for a living. The 
streets are very narrow, seldom more than ten, and often not more 
than six feet wide ; on either side, in the better portions of the 
city, there is a succession of brilliant shops, with gorgeous signs 
painted upon boards, which are hung perpendicularly instead of be- 
ing placed laterally as in other parts of the w^orld. The attendants 
are civil and diligent in the exhibition of their wares, but never 
importunate. In very many of these shops is a niche for a "Joss " 
or household god, to which offerings are made at intervals ; and at 
the door of nearly every one of them is a little stone grotto or 
niche, in which at evening a light is placed, together witli " Joss- 
sticks," which slowly burn and moulder away until they are 
consumed. The observance of their religious customs seems to be 
a prominent feature in the life of the Chinese, and, while there 



APPEIS-DIX. 297 

is evidently much superstition which to a European is absurd, it 
is also evident that the regard for his religion must be very strong 
in the average Chinaman to make him so faithfully observe all 
its forms. 

I had heard so much of the peculiarities of Chinese diet that 
I was anxious to try a genuine Chinese dinner, and we therefore 
had our interpreter take us to a celebrated Chinese restaurant, 
kept by one " Chi-Hung," where we ordered a first-class native 
dinner. First, tea was served with dried melon-seeds, which our 
interpreter explained were to keep us busy until they could bring 
the other things. The first regular course consisted of shrimp- 
salad served with " soda eggs " (eggs boiled in a strong solution 
of .soda-water and having an alkaline taste), together with a sauce 
made from soy and English malt vinegar ; there was also an 
assortment of fruit consisting of sliced pears ; " Yung-toh " (a 
star-shaped fruit tasting somewhat like gooseberries) ; " Pumlo " (a 
large, bitter orange) ; shelled almonds and pear-wine. The next 
course was the celebrated " bird's-nest soup," which was thickened 
with shreds of boiled chicken and hard-boiled eggs cut very fine ; 
a little dried ham was also grated upon the top of the dish. 
These birds' nests, which are considered the greatest delicacy by 
the Chinese, are simply a sort of gelatinous substance which is 
gathered from the sea by a species of swallow in Java and 
Sumatra, and built up into nests. These nests are gathered by 
the natives, usually just as they are being finished, and before 
they have been soiled by the birds, and are shipped to Canton. 
As they are received here, they look more like a piece of crude, 
rather dingy glue bent up in the shape of a swallow's nest, such 
as we have at home, but much smaller. They are prepared by 
being soaked in water, thoroughly scoured to remove the dirt, cut 
up into thin strips, and it is then in substance, appearance, and taste 
nearer like Cooper's gelatine than any other substance with which I 
can compare it. To my taste it cannot be considered a delicacy, 
but as served to us it was certainly a very palatable dish. Course 
ISTo. 3 consisted of pigeon's eggs served with chicken and ham, in 
a sort of stew ; this was also a very good dish. Course No. 4 
was composed of dried oysters stewed with mushrooms, young 
bamboo-shoots and cucumber, with a very little mixture of salt 



298 COFFEE. 

pork, for the purpose of giving it richness and flavor. Course 
JSTo. 5 was composed of sharks' fins cut into thin strips and stewed 
with eggs ; these fins also tasted much like gelatine. No, 6 con- 
sisted of boned-duck, boiled ; it was stuffed with mushrooms, 
bamboo-shoots, dates, and various aromatic herbs — a very good 
dish. Course JSTo. 7 consisted of boiled snails with salad ; the 
orthodox way of eating these is to break off the small point of the 
shell, which destroys the vacuum, and then a gentle suck at the 
larger end places the toothsome morsel at your disposal. I tried 
one and it was very good, but I had hardly become accustomed to 
the idea of eating snails, and did not feel hungry enough to eat 
more. Course Xo. 8 consisted of boiled rice with " conch " water, 
which, as near as we could understand, w^as simply rice-water, 
with a few grains of rice left in it. Tea was served, and this 
ended the diimer. Large basins of hot water were then brought 
to wash our hands in, and small towels or napkins to dry them 
with. I also forgot to mention that there were small pieces 
of Chinese paper brought with the first course, which were in- 
tended to be used as napkins. Altogether, the viands may be 
said to be fairly palatable, and we could have made a good meal 
had we not already eaten a moderate dinner at the hotel just 
before starting, as we were fearful that we would not be able to 
appreciate Chinese cookery sufficiently well to satisfy our appetites. 
I then told our interpreter that I was very much dissatisfied at 
not having a regxLlar Chinese dinner ; that I wanted some cats 
and dogs, or rats and mice, such as Chinese eat ; that, if we could 
not get it there, we must go to some place where we could get it. 
He assured me, in the gravest manner, that such things were not 
eaten by the Chinese, except occasionally by the poorer classes, 
when they could get nothing better. He volunteered, however, 
to go w^ith us and try and find a place where we could procure 
" such tings."" After paying our bill we started out in search of a 
dog-and-cat-meat restaurant. 

After a long walk through the narrow streets, and making 
various inquiries, our interpreter turned into an alley-way, and 
stopping in front of a dark, dingy little eating-house, pointed tri- 
umphantly to the claws that were still attached to a hind-quarter 
of what might be mistaken for the fat hind-quarter of a young 



APPENDIX. 299 

pig, and ejaculated " Dog ! " After satisfying ourselves that this 
was the veritable article, he also showed us a kettle in front of 
which was an inscription in Chinese, which, he said, translated 
into English, read : " Black cat, served hot." I told him I wanted 
to try some, which fact he comnmnicated to the proprietor, who 
escorted us up a pair of rickety bamboo stairs into a dirty little 
room on the second floor, in which there were four small tables 
with benches at their sides. Sitting down at these, we soon had 
the satisfaction of seeing two liberal-sized plates of stewed cat 
and dog before us. The cat was cut into much finer pieces than 
the dog, but both dishes looked and tasted, for all the world, like 
stewed rabbit. Owing to the two previous meals which I had 
discussed, my appetite was not very good, and I could hardly do 
more than taste of these two dishes. Proceeding down-stairs, 1 
asked to be shown any live dogs and cats that might be on hand 
awaiting their fate, but, with the exception of one small, half- 
starved cat, there was nothing of the kind to be seen. I am sure 
that the dog was gemiine, because I saw the feet attached to the 
hind-quarter, but I could not vouch for the other dish being gen- 
uine cat, because there were no identifying marks to be seen. 
This ended our experience with Chinese viands, and from what I 
have seen, and the inquiries which I have made in China, I am 
satisfied that the stories which have been current all over the 
world in relation to the Chinese habitually eating cats and dogs, or 
rats and mice, have been greatly exaggerated. Indeed, it may be 
said to be the romance of travellers rather than a statement of 
things as they actually exist. The principal article of flesh diet 
among the Chinese is pork ; of this they use immense quantities, 
mostly, so far as I can judge, in a fresh state. Poultry, especially 
ducks, are also a very large item, and from these they very skil- 
fully take out the bones, press them flat, salt and dry them and 
use them as preserved provision. So great a demand is there for 
these, and ducks not making very good mothers, the Chinese 
have invented hatching establishments, where immense numbers 
of ducks' eggs are accumulated, and, by keeping up a uniform 
degree of artificial heat, they are successful in hatching out nearly 
the whole of them. We visited one of these establishments near 
Canton, and found it very interesting. As soon as the ducks are 



300 COFFEE. 

hatched, they are sold to parties all over the country, who make a 
business of rearing them for market ; they pay about two cents 
each for them when just out of the shell, and when reared obtain 
from twenty-five to fifty cents for them, according to size and 
condition, Rice, however, is the article of largest consumption 
among the Chinese, and probably fish comes next. Eggs are also 
largely used, and almost everywhere in Chinese native towns one 
can get fish, rice, and eggs in perfection, and, of course, with 
these there is no need of going hungry. Storks are also eaten in 
China, and in passing along the streets of Canton it was no 
uncommon thing to see large numbers of white storks exposed 
for sale. At first we wondered why they did not fly away, as 
they apparently were not fastened ; but on investigating this 
matter we found that their eyes were sewed up, so as to make 
them entirely blind, in which state they never fly— certainly an 
original Chinese way of accomplishing the same object that we in 
America do by clipping the wings of birds that we do not wish 
to have " make themselves wings." 

The Chinese also have a way of surmounting the tradi- 
tional obstinacy of the pig, which is rather original and amusing. 
Every pig is put into a bag-shaped bamboo basket ; these bas- 
kets are just large enough to receive him, and frequently we 
saw coolies trotting along the streets of Canton with a pig in a 
basket slung on a bamboo pole which rested on their shoulders. 
Pigs are also brought in from the country in boats, sometimes 
a distance of many miles, the baskets being piled one on top of 
the other in a way which cannot be very comfortable for the un- 
dermost pigs. 

It has been a mystery to me, ever since I saw the first pair of 
chopsticks, how they could be made effective in conveying food to 
the mouth ; but the mystery is solved here, for I find that almost 
every variety of food is served in bowls, and these bowls are held 
close to the mouth, and the sticks are used more ior j)oking the 
food into the mouth than they are for lifting, as we do with the 
fork. 

Kough rice is cleaned throughout the length and breadth of 
China, and indeed, I may say in Japan and the other great islands 
of the Pacific, by pounding it in a large wooden mortar with a 



APPENDIX. 301 

pestle, which is operated by a lever worked with the feet. It is a 
slow and laborious process, not nearly so perfect in its results as 
the work of our rice-mills, yet immense quantities of rice are 
cleaned in this way. 

Clothes are washed by dipping them into the water and then 
slapping them over rocks and stones. At first this seemed to me 
as if it must be bad for the clothes, but as yet I have detected no 
evidence of undue wear and tear in my own, and certainly both 
Chinese and Japanese laundrymen do their work well and cheaply 
— two cents per piece being the customary price in Japan, and 
three cents in China, this including large as well as small pieces. 

Chinese kites are an institution ; we happened to be in Canton 
just in the season when the greatest numbers of them are being 
flown. They are made in all sorts of fantastic shapes, figures of 
birds, insects, and men being represented, together with many 
fanciful designs which only a Chinaman could invent. During 
favorable weather one can see scores of these flying in every 
direction, some of them attaining (what seemed to me) a greater 
heiglit than any I had ever before noticed. 

The principal currency here, and indeed throughout China, are 
Mexican dollars ; and a heavy, clumsy, inconvenient currency they 
are. If you wish to make any considerable purchase, you have to 
carry about with you a weight of money which is exceedingly in- 
convenient, and which makes one long for an equivalent in green- 
backs. There are occasionally counterfeits among them, and to 
insure their genuineness and enable them to be traced from hand 
to hand, the Chinese have away of stamping with a little steel 
punch or die the private mark of the person paying them out. 
By this practice the dollars gradually become so defaced that it is 
impossible to identify them, and so abraded that they are finally 
broken up into fragments, which serve as small change by weigh- 
ing them, every Chinese dealer having a pair of tiny scales for 
tliis purpose. 

The Chinese have also an original way of taking your meas- 
ure for a suit of clothes. The measurer, who is usually the 
cutter, takes a long, thin tape of tough paper, goes through the 
usual motions, but instead of calling out the numbers and hav- 
ing them put down in a book, he simply nips off a small piece 



302 COFFEE. 

of the tape at eacli length, and these indications are to him as 
plain as figures would be to a European cutter. They are expert 
tailors, and work very cheaply. I had made to order in Hong- 
Kong, by a native tailor, a blue flannel suit for $9 that would 
have cost me from $35 to $40 in New York, and a white duck 
suit for $5.50 that would have cost me $20 to $25 in New York. 
I am convinced that this difference is not all in cheap materials 
and cheap labor, but that New York tailors must charge exorbi- 
tant profits. The fact is. Chinamen are very expert and skilful 
at anything. They can imitate anything for which you will give 
them a pattern, and indeed this imitative faculty is quite remark- 
able. They always follow the exact pattern ; they are "realistic" 
in every sense of the word. It is an old story which many 
readers may have heard, but perhaps it may be new to some, 
that a gentleman wishing a dozen pairs of " nankeen " trowsers 
made, left a pair of old ones with a Chinese tailor as a pattern. 
This pair happened to have a patch on the place that usually gets 
the most wear. The goods were delivered to the gentleman 
punctually, according to agreement, but what was his dismay on 
examining them to find that every pair had a patch upon them in 
the same identical place as the pair which had been left as a 
pattern. In California I heard the story of a Chinese cook, whom 
the lady of the house desired to teach how to make an omelet. 
Breaking the eggs as usual, the third one which came to hand 
was not fresh, and consequently she threw it away. The China- 
man never required showing again ; the omelets were always 
perfect, and w^ere consequently frequently ordered. Happening 
into the kitchen one day, however, at the time the cook was pre- 
paring an omelet, she, to her surprise, observed him throw away 
an egg which was perfectly fresh. Investigating the matter, as a 
frugal housewife ought, she found that John Chinaman had been 
literally carrying out her example ever since the first showing, by 
throwing away every third egg that he broke, without any refer- 
ence whatever to its quality. There are many other features in 
Chinese life which are novel and interesting, but in the limited 
space of this letter I am obliged to omit them. Suffice it to 
say that Americans in America see only the worst side of the 
Chinese, for those who emigrate, as is usual with all nations, are 



APPENDIX. 303 

those of the poorer classes, who seek to better their condition. 
Perhaps after a time we may learn to treat the Chinese who come 
to America in a way that will make it an inducement for a better 
class to come — a class that in personal cleanliness, intelligence, 
ability, and enterprise, are not inferior to the average population 
in any part of the world. 



SINGAPORE. 



TROPICAL LIFE AND SCENERY — A VISIT TO PEPPER AND TAPIOCA 
PLANTATIONS, ETC., ETC. 

From Hong-Kong to Singapore is a distance of nearly fifteen 
hundred miles, the course being nearly due south and covering 
something over twenty degrees of latitude. Arriving at Singa- 
pore, a glance at the foliage of the shrubs and trees shows that 
we are in a more tropical country than any we have yet visited. 
Cocoa-nut, betel-nut, and traveller's palm-trees are everywhere to 
be seen ; bananas (or plantains, as they are called here), together 
with pineapples, grow by the way-side, and every wall and 
hedge is covered with a luxuriant growth of flowering vines, such 
as are seen nowhere except in the tropics. The palm-trees are 
exceedingly graceful, and, to a stranger, are quite the feature of 
the landscape; the " betel-nut ■ palm " is very slender, and rises 
tall and straight seventy-five or one hundred feet, terminating 
with the usual tuft of long, graceful, fern-like leaves, and the 
bunch of nuts clustered among them. The natives, and also many 
Chinese, are continually chewing this nut, which stains their lips 
and gurns of a reddish hue, and also colors their teeth very black, 
giving them anything but a prepossessing appearance. The 
" cocoa-nut palm " is very abundant and grows stronger than any 
other variety, although more crooked, and usually not so tall as 
the betel-palm ; the leaves, which also grow only from the top, 
are long and graceful, and the fruit clusters in great abundance 
just at the base of the leaves. The " traveller's palm," however, 
is more picturesque than either of the two former varieties ; the 



304 COFFEE. 

trunk is shorter, but from the top of the trunk its tall, graceful 
leaves shoot out in the shape of a " palm-leaf fan," or, as some 
persons have described it, like the rising sun. These leaves are 
deeply grooved, and at their base form quite a reservoir, v^^iere, 
when it rains, a supply of water is collected and retained for 
many days. In regions where water is scarce, travellers obtain a 
supply by puncturing these reservoirs ; hence the name of " trav- 
eller's palm." A stranger is somewhat surprised to see the water 
follow the knife, pouring out of the puncture in a slender stream, 
quite reminding one of the " rock of Iloreb." 

Everything here constantly reminds me that I am in the 
tropics ; but few of the houses have any glass in their windows, 
blinds answering the purpose of keeping out the sun and rain, 
and yet admitting as much as possible of the always-to-be-desired 
breeze. The hotels furnish no upper sheet or other covering for 
the bed, unless requested to do so, and, indeed, this is unnecessary 
where the thermometer ranges between eighty and ninety degrees 
throughout the year. Dusky bird-venders, with a long stick 
perched full of parrots of every hue, and stick peddlers, with 
their bundle of real malacca canes, everywhere greet you with 
"Buy a bird? "or "Buy a stick, master ? " and in the shops, 
tigers' claws and bird-of -paradise skins are staple curiosities, of 
which nearly every traveller buys more or less. 

Here also we met a new type of features, in the Malay race, 
and a stranger blending of nationalities even than at Hong-Kong. 
Malay boatmen and fishermen, Hindoo money-changers and shop- 
keepers, Bengalese washermen and hack-drivers, Parsee merchants, 
Portuguese clerks from Malacca, Chinese merchants, planters, and 
coolies, besides a representation of all the nations of Europe, 
make up a conglomerate population such as probably can be 
found in no other part of the world. Of these the Chinese are 
by far the most numerous, and their patient industry has made 
them a most important part of the population here. Indeed, it 
has passed into a proverb that " the Chinese are the backbone of 
the island." They own and cultivate more land than any other 
class, and pay more taxes ; are quiet, orderly, industrious, and en- 
tei-prising, and instead of carrying their bones back to China, as 
they do from California, they marry, raise families, and most of 



APPETTDIX. 305 

them are buried here the same as other people. Some of them 
have become naturalized British subjects, and one Chinese mer- 
chant, Mr. Whampoa, has been so benevolent and useful a citizen 
that the British Government has conferred upon him the Colo- 
nial Order of Knighthood. There is probably a larger percen- 
tage of the merchant and trading class here than in California, 
but this is due to the fact that the Chinese are so treated on the 
Pacific coast that there is no inducement for a well-to-do China- 
man to emigrate there, while here all are protected in their rights, 
both of person and property ; and hence the result in their being 
permanent, useful, and respected citizens. 

Pepper is one of the principal exports from Singapore, and 
the variety of this article produced in this section has always 
been more highly esteemed than that produced in Sumatra and 
other of the great Spice Islands. Desiring to learn as much as 
possible about the peculiarities of production of this, as well as 
other articles which enter into the trade with which I am con- 
nected, I arranged for a visit to a pepper-plantation. There are not 
many upon Singapore Island itself, the soil not being considered 
as rich and productive as that of the Malayan Peninsula, immedi- 
ately opposite ; but a number of Chinese planters have grown it 
successfully, and it M'as one of their plantations, owned by a Chi- 
nese planter named Tan-Oh-Hoon, at Sarengong, some nine miles 
from Singapore, that I visited. At a distance, a pepper-planta- 
tion somewhat resembles a hop-farm, the pepper-plant being a 
vine trained upon poles, much the same as hop-farmers train 
their vines in the United States. Unlike the hop-vine, however, 
the pepper-vine or plant has a strong, woody growth, and does 
not throw out long, slender tendrils, as does the hop-vine. In- 
deed, unless carefully tied and trained around supporting poles, it 
would, probably, in many instances, spread over the ground in- 
stead of climbing. It is propagated from cuttings, has a smooth, 
glossy leaf, and begins to bear when from two to three years old, 
after which, with proper cultivation, it lasts many years. The 
grains of pepper form on stems, much the same as currants, 
and are picked twice a year, for in this tropical latitude nearly all 
plants remain green the year round, and yield two or more crops. 
The first picking usually extends through ISTovember, December, 
20 



306 COFFEE. 

and January. Then an interval of several months is allov^ed to 
elapse before the next picking takes place. That which is de- 
signed for black pepper is picked after the berries have attained a 
good size, but while they are yet green. They are usually picked 
in the cool of the evening, thrown upon a lattice-work of bamboo, 
which is placed over a furnace, the heat and smoke from which 
pass through the pepper and both dry and color it. (Both the 
leaf and fruit of the pepper plant also naturally turn black, if 
dried in the sun, when picked green.) This process is usually 
accomplished in one night, and the next daj^ the stems are taken 
off the lattice-work, placed upon mats, and the berries detached 
from the stem by rubbing with the hands or treading with the 
feet. They are then sifted, to remove the dust and stems, and 
the dried berries or kernels are packed in bags to await shipment. 
To make " white pepper " the stems are allowed to remain 
upon the vines until the berries are ripe, when they are of a red 
color and have considerable pulp around the inner kernel or seed. 
Immediately after picking they are thrown into shallow trenches 
or ditches, containing water, where they are allowed to soak ten 
or twelve days. By this time the pulp is much decayed, and the 
berries are then taken out and put into a strong bag, into which a 
coolie gets and treads vigorously with his feet to loosen the skin 
and pulp. This mass is then turned out upon sieves, and the 
seeds or kernels separated and put in the sun to dry. When 
dried the berries are of a grayish white color, but after being sold 
they not unf requently undergo another bleaching by " chlorine," 
which improves their appearance at the expense of quality. The 
process by which white pepper is produced is much more tedious 
and expensive than in making black pepper, and the product is 
really not so good, the essential constituents of the spice being 
more abundant in the outer parts of the fruit than in the seed. 
Let any person take a sample of ground black pepper and ground 
white pepper, and use the two in the same manner ; he will per- 
ceive that the latter has a bitterish taste and lacks the rich and 
spicy flavor of the former, and yet the demand for white pepper 
has largely increased during the last quarter of a century, not- 
withstanding the fact that the price has ranged from fifty to one 
hundred per cent, higher than for the black. 



APPENDIX. 307 

On my return from the pepper-plantation, I stopped at a 
large "pearl tapioca" manufactory. Here were some 2,000 acres 
in a plantation, owned by a Chinese planter named Tan-Ah-Seng. 
Tapioca itself is a tuber or bulb, from which springs a tender, 
woody shoot, attaining, at the age of sixteen months, when it is 
ready for harvest, a height of five or six feet, the only leaves 
being three or four at the top. The tubers or roots, from which 
the tapioca is made, are dug very much as potatoes are, and some 
of them very much resemble in appearance our American sweet 
potatoes ; but the meat is whiter and contains large quantities of a 
starchy flour, which separates from the fibrous matter when 
groimd, and it is this flour from which tapioca is made. The roots 
are first washed, and after having the outer skin removed, are 
ground np in a machine. A stream of water is turned upon the 
pulp, which carries the flour off into vats, where it settles. It re- 
mains in these vats twenty-four hours, and is then run off into 
large tubs, where it remains for abbut eight days, the water being 
changed each day, and thoroughly agitated, so as to mix with the 
flour. After the last water is drawn off it leaves a deposit of 
beautifully white flour, which is taken out in cakes and conveyed 
to the drying-house. Here it is broken up into small particles ; 
indeed, I may say pulverized. A portion of it is then placed in a 
machine called a "yulong," which looks more like a small, canvas 
boat, suspended by strings from the ceiling at each end, than any- 
thing else, and by giving this a peculiar motion, which is half 
backward and forward and half rotary, the floury particles adhere 
to each other and are shaped into small, round balls, about the 
size of a ]^o. 4 shot. The tapioca is then placed upon drying- 
pans, under which a steady and gentle heat is maintained for 
about half an hour, when it is sufficiently dry for packing and 
transportation. In fine weather it is sometimes dried in the sun, 
a process which usually occupies about a day to accomplish the 
result attained with the furnace in a half-hour. The tapioca 
flour can be made at will, either into small or large-sized " pearl " 
tapioca, or into " flake ; " but the flake tapioca from this part of 
the globe does not possess as much gluten as that produced in 
Brazil, and, although beautifully white, is not as free from dust as 
the Brazilian tapioca. 



808 COFFEE. 



TEA-GKOWING IN JAYA. 



I had occasionally heard of Java tea, but had no idea to what 
extent tea was cultivated in Java. I found on my arrival here, 
however, that there were annually produced fi-oni eight to ten 
million pounds, and I immediately became curious to see the 
method of culture and the quality and varieties produced. 
Through friends in Batavia I was kindly furnished with letters of 
introduction to Mr. E. J. Kirkhoven, who, in connection with his 
partner, Mr. Ilohler, was represented to be an extensive tea-planter 
in Sinagar, a small place some sixty or seventy miles in the in- 
terior. We proceeded by rail from Batavia to Buitenzorg, some 
forty miles, and thence by two-wheeled spring-carts, each drawn 
by three tiny ponies, about the size of two months old colts, to 
Sinagar. Arriving there, we were most hospitably received by 
Mr. Kirkhoven, and not only had an excellent opportunity of see- 
ing the process of tea-cidtivation and manufacture, but also some- 
thing of what a planter's life is like in the interior of Java. The 
estate extends over several square miles, and the area under tea- 
cultivation alone is upwards of 1,100 acres. There are, upon an 
average, about 6,000 plants to the acre, which, upon this area, 
would give between 600,000 and 700,000 plants. Some of these, 
however, are not in full bearing, owing to a severe blight which 
has affected the plants during the last year or two, making it 
necessary to prune them close to the ground, in order that they 
may produce fresh shoots ; yet, even with this drawback, this 
grand estate will produce this year about 800,000 pounds, or 
10,000 chests of 80 pounds, net, each. One great advantage of 
tea-culture in Java is that the picking and manufacture may be 
continued nearly the whole year through, while in Japan and China 
the severity of the climate limits the picking to three or four 
months. Labor is also much cheaper here than in China, although 
it is said that one Chinaman will do as much work as two Java- 
nese. The average wages of adults in Japan and China is about IS 
or 20 cents per day ; here it is not more than half that sum, while 
that of women and children — by whom a large portion of the work 
is done — is paid for " by the piece " at even a less rate than this. 



APPENDIX. 309 

All the tea made here is black (Congou, Souchong, and a little 
Pekoe), and the culture and preparation are essentially the same 
as in China. The plants are grown at intervals of two feet, in 
rows, which are four feet apart ; the spaces between are carefully 
kept free from weeds, and the earth loose and moist. There is 
also one feature which I did not see either in Japan or China, viz.: 
the dia-o-ino- of holes at short intervals between the rows, for the 
purpose of allowing the air to reach the subsoil, and to catch and 
hold the rain, so that it may gradually percolate through the soil, 
affording at all times sufficient moisture to the roots of the plants. 
The leaves, when picked, are first spread out on large, circular, 
shallow baskets, and exposed to the sun until wilted. They are 
then, for a few minutes, placed in firing-pans and stirred until 
thoroughly heated. They are next thrown on tables surrounded 
by operators, each of whom grasps a mass of the tea as large as 
he can hold in his hands and rolls it over and over, in order to curl 
the leaves and make them compact. They are then shaken out 
and again placed on the baskets in the sun for the balance of the 
day. When the sun goes down, the baskets, together wdth the 
tea which they hold, are placed in a drying-room, through which 
the heated air from a furnace is driven by a blower, which in ten 
hours completes the drying process, leaving the leaf much shrunken 
in size, and close, wiry, and black. It is a curious fact that at 
this time the leaf has scarcely any odor, and does not appear to 
have nearly as much taste as it has after it has lain a few days in 
bulk, when it acquires a marked fragrant odor, somewhat the 
same as new-mown hay, although nothing is used to scent it or 
otherwise add to its flavor. To some extent this is the case also 
in China and Japan, although the tea which I saw in those coun- 
tries seemed to possess much more flavor immediately after filing 
than the Java leaf. In China it is also sometimes scented, in the 
manner previously described. At the time of picking, the differ- 
ent sizes of leaf are kept separate, and from these are made dif- 
ferent kinds of tea, the smallest and tenderest leaf being made 
into Pekoe, the next size into Souchong, and the larger leaves into 
Congou. These teas, however, seemed to me to have a strong, 
peculiar flavor, much like the Assam teas, of which we occasion- 
ally get a shipment in America. After the completion of the 



310 COFFEE. 

curing process, the tea is packed in chests holding from 80 to 90 
pounds net, and transported to Batavia, whence it is shipped to 
Holland ; but some of it also goes to England, and, I believe, 
occasionally a small lot to the United States. Java tea has a 
handsome style of leaf, possesses good body, and is said to be an 
excellent tea for making the mixtures which are commonly sold 
in Holland and in England. 

The residence, together with all the accessories of the life led 
by Mr. Ivirkhoven, were to me very interesting, and I presume, 
constitute a fair specimen of the life led by a majority of the large 
planters in the interior of Java. These estates are generally very 
extensive, usually comprising many thousands of acres, the most 
eligible of which only are cultivated. The plantations of Messrs. 
Kirkhoven and Hohler cover about three square miles of groimd, 
necessitating two establishments in different parts of this immense 
territory, with all the requisites for cultivating and curing the tea. 



HALF WAY EOUKD. 

TKOPICAIi SCENERY THE MOST BEAUTIFUL VIEW IN THE WORLD 

BRITISH COLONIZATION POLICY, ETC. 

I BELIEVE that all " globe trotters " give their friends at home 
a dose of lessons in geography and reflections at this period of 
their journey about their said friends being eight thousand miles 
beneath their feet, that noonday with them is midnight with the 
friends, etc. ; but it was never clear to my mind whether the 
friends were on top or whether the travellers were ; so I have 
concluded to spare the reader that part of my narrative, and 
merely state that I am on my way from Singapore to Ceylon ; 
that we have just passed the port of Penang, on the Malayan 
Peninsula; are, therefore, a little more than half way round, and 
that we are now ploughing through the Indian Ocean, off the 
northerly end of Sumatra, as fast as steam and sails on the good 
steamer Tigre, of the French " Messageries," can carry us. 



APPENDIX. 311 

Penang, to most minds, is suggestive of nutmegs and otlier 
spices, but it also carries me back in memory to my school-boy 
days and the story of the yomigster, who, on examination day, 
before the grave and spectacled trustees of a district school, spelled 
and defined the word rattan as follows: "R-a-t-t-a-n, rattan; a 
slender, fibrous wood which comes from Penang, Samarang, and 
Padan"', and — is used by the school-master in this school too-dang 
often." I have always had a fellow-feeling for that boy, and re- 
spect him even now ; besides, it taught me a lesson in geography, 
for, forget as I would the names of other places, Penang, Sama- 
rang, and Padang were always firmly fixed in my memory. 

A sea-voyage is not considered the pleasantest and most enter- 
taining thing in the world, especially if one is subject to sea-sick- 
ness ; but I enjoy voyaging in these tropical seas, where all is so 
new and interesting to me. This morning I have been watching 
the shoals of tiny flying-fish as they rise from the water to escape 
the dolphins and other voracious monsters, and go skipping from 
wave to wave, sometimes for quite long distances ; and last night 
we had a beautiful exhibition of phosphorescent light in the water, 
as it glided along the ship's side or curled upward from the screw 
astern. Nature is always providing beauties for those who have 
eyes to see and hearts to appreciate, and I feel myself fortunate 
in being able to find pleasure in her charms whether on land or 
sea. 

I have enjoyed some most charming bits of tropical scenery, 
among them Buitenzorg, Java, which, as an entirety, is a most 
beautiful place ; but the prospect from the Hotel Belle-vue is 
fairly entitled, I think, to the name of " The most heautiful view 
in the xoorldP The pretty river Tjedani runs just at the foot of 
the bluff upon which the hotel is built, and, with an abrupt turn, 
loses itself amid a mass of tropical foliage. 

" Breadths of tropic shade and palms in cluster, knots of paradise." 

The plain below is also covered with graceful cocoa-nut palms, 
and other tropical trees, and reaches away for several miles, gradu- 
ally sloping upward until a belt of coffee and spice plantations is 
reached, and from these, for a background, there suddenly rises 
the grand volcanic peak of Mount Salak. 



312 COFFEE. 

I shall never forget my last day at Buitenzorg : sitting upon 
the balcony during the closing hours of a tropical iSI ovember after- 
noon, all nature seemed to be at rest ; the slender palms, which 
are ever waving their restless leaves, were as still as silence itself, 
and the dragon-flies floated so lazily in the rays of the setting sun 
that I threw down my fan, so out of harmony was its motion with 
the spirit of the scene. Only the river, the ever running river, 
moved, and that seemed to have lost its ripples and glided where 
before it ran murmuring past. It seemed as if I could never tire 
of this scene ; I sat and gazed at the shadows creeping slow^ly up 
the mountain-side until they reached the ragged crater at the top, 
and the halo of light suddenly faded. Then a purple mist envel- 
oped the mountain ; the deep ravines and fissures in its side, which 
before had been visible, faded away, and soon nothing was visible 
but the dim blue outline which long held its place amid the dark- 
ening shadows. I have enjoyed and left other places with regret, 
but I could not put aside the positive sorrow I felt at leaving 
Buitenzorg. The short stay in Java was so enjoyable that I much 
wish that my arrangements had been such that I might have de- 
voted sufficient time to visit other parts of the island, wdiich are 
said to be equal or superior in attractions to those which I visited. 

Indeed, explorers tell us of a wealth of tropical scenery in all 
the great islands of the Malayan Archipelago, which is equalled 
nowhere upon the globe. Here are islands with an extent of ter- 
ritory which entitles them almost to the name of continent : 
Sumatra, more than 1,000 miles long ; Java, 600 ; Borneo, 900, 
with a breadth almost as great ; while Celebes and others of the 
Moluccas and Spice Islands are of a size and possess a soil and 
climate which would make them of great importance if situated 
anywhere else than in this vast and far distant Indian Ocean. 
Much of this great territory has not, as yet, even been visited by 
the explorer ; not a ten-thousandth part has yet been cleared of 
jungle, and this small portion hardly scratched by the plough- 
share. Yet its productions fiU the ships and warehouses of all 
nations with the richest and most valuable products known in 
commerce. 

All this great region is nominally in the possession of the 
Dutch ; I say nominally, for it is only here and there that their 



APPENDIX. 313 

authority is supreme and undisturbed, and the 25,000,000 of 
natives are controlled by probably less than the same number of 
thousands of white residents. Holland has a much more feeble 
hold upon her colonies than England has upon hers, and sup- 
presses disturbances with so feeble and faltering a hand as to 
promise anything but permanency for her possessions in the East. 
The present war in Acheen, Sumatra, is a striking example of this. 
Here, a handful of natives, with no discipline or resources, have suc- 
cessfully defied the power of Holland for several years, and it pre- 
sents a striking contrast with the manner in which England chas- 
tised the Abyssinians and suppressed the great rebellion in India. 

Whatever may be said of Englishmen, it cannot be said that 
they are not good colonizers. In every English colony one finds 
good roads and good judicial and police regulations, insuring the 
safety of life and property, and descending into the minutest de- 
tails of regulation upon which depend the comfort and conveni- 
ence of Europeans. I could not but notice this in Hong-Kong, 
which was the first English colony I visited. Here was a large 
and sufficient force of native police ; every chair or other public 
conveyance had its number, and the maximum scale of charges 
was prominently posted so that travellers need not be imposed 
upon. Each one of the vast number of boats in the harbor was 
also registered, licensed and numbered, and at night there stood 
at every landing-place an official who made a note of the number 
of every boat leaving the shore, together with the immber of 
passengers carried and their destination, for it is said in by -gone 
times passengers would sometimes take a boat for a ship in the 
harbor, and never reach their destination. I also found the 
same regulations current at Singapore, where there are miles of 
macadamized roads so smooth that the small mountain ponies, 
which are chiefly used there, can easily draw a good-sized carriage, 
containing four persons, at a good rate of speed. 

English policy in the East has been both aggressive and tena- 
cious : first obtaining a hold, no matter how slender, and then hold- 
ing on to it with a death-like grip. British dominion in the East 
has been greatly extended by enterprising Englishmen striking 
out for and exploring unknown regions, settling and perhaps 
planting there, and then claiming the protection of the British 



314 COFFEE. 

flag. In very many cases adventurous spirits liave gone wliere 
they had no business to go, and assumed authority which they had 
no business to assume ; yet if the natives resented this and these 
men suffered in life or property, a British gunboat vi^as promptly 
upon the spot, and, if necessary, the whole power of this great 
nation was at hand to resent the "outrage upon the British flag;" 
generally the affair resulted in a British occupation, and new ter- 
ritory was added to the already immense possessions of the British 
in the East. However, perhaps Englishmen can retort by saying, 
with some truth, that our Indian policy has been a duplicate of 
that of Great Britain, and it may be that 

" Through the ages one increasing purpose runs," 
and that the destiny of the aboriginal races, both in India and 
America, is to disappear before the onward march of European 
" civilization." 



CEYLON. 



CANOES AT POINT DE GALLE COCOA-NUT TREES FEMALE POLYGA- 

MISTS. 

The island of Ceylon, lying off the southern coast of India, is 
about two hundred miles long by one hundred broad. The flrst 
impressions that travellers usually get of this great island are de- 
rived from the little port of Point de Galle at its extreme south- 
ern end, which is the great port of call for all tJie steam lines to 
the east ; and as you approach the island the thing that most at- 
tracts the traveller's attention is the surf, which breaks with great 
violence all along the coast. Galle Harbor itself is a little band- 
box of a haven, rocky and somewhat dangerous of access, and not 
very secure after it has been reached. Immediately our steamer 
dropped anchor she was surrounded by a fleet of the queerest- 
shaped canoes I have ever seen. Imagine a log, eighteen inches 
to two feet in diameter, twenty-five or thirty feet long, tapered 
up to a point at the ends, and with a narrow slit, about eighteen 
inches wide, cut in it throughout nearly its whole length ; through 
this slit the entire inside of the log is scooped out, leaving only 



APPENDIX. 315 

a tliiii shell. Having no keel, this kind of a craft would, of 
coui'Se, very easily upset, were it not that this is provided against 
by having what is called an " outrigger," consisting of another 
smaller, solid log placed parallel with it and about ten feet off, 
connected with the canoe by two strong arms of wood, slightly 
curved above the water, and which are fastened so as to give 
them great rigidity — in effect, all the staunchness of a raft, but 
with clipper-ship sailing qualities, xlbove the slit in the canoe is 
built up a light weather-board, or rather water-board, to prevent 
the water dashing in during rough weather ; and these crafts, 
carrying a large sail and manned by four or more natives, go 
through the water at a rate which, it is said, is equalled by no 
other class of sailing craft afloat. When there is a stiff l)reeze, 
in order to ballast them, they put a man out upon tlie outrigger, 
and when it blows heavily they put two men out, this living bal- 
last clinging fast to lashings, and in their parlance it is called a 
" one-man " or " two-man " breeze. To a European, seeing them 
for the first time, they look precisely like a large and a small cigar, 
made with both ends tapered, placed parallel with each other in 
the water, connected by a couple of straws, and he will hardly 
believe that they are safe craft for him to venture in ; but they 
are largely used as ferry-boats between the shipping and the shore, 
carrying trunks even, as well as passengers, and are said to be the 
best boats that can possibly be made for going througli a heavy surf. 
Point de Galle itself is a quaint old town, originally fortified 
by the Portuguese, from whom it was taken by the Dutch, and 
they, in turn, were dispossessed by the English about the begin- 
ning of the present century. It has but little commerce, the great 
bulk of the exports and imports of the island being made at the 
port of Colombo, which is about eighty miles along the coast to 
the northward. Between these two places communication is 
regularly maintained by steamers, and there is also a very excel- 
lent road along the coast, by which the distance between the two 
places is made by post-coach in nine or ten hours. This stage- 
coach ride proved one of the most enjoyable parts of my whole 
journey. The road, like most English roads, is smooth and level 
as a floor, and throughout nearly the whole distance is densely 
shaded by graceful cocoa-nut palms, which here grow in great 



316 COFFEE. 

abundance. In places the young trees are planted at regular 
intervals, and their leaves, arching upward in regular Gothic style, 
meet at the top in curved geometrical lines, and look exactly 
like the groined arches of a cathedral crypt. Throughout the 
whole distance the roar of the sea sounded in our ears, and occa- 
sional openings in the trees gave us glimpses of it, curling over in 
solid, green masses, and dashing its foam in concentric, circular 
rings, far up on the broad, sandy beach. 

The cocoa-nut tree is the chief source of revenue and profit to 
the natives here, and, indeed, is a wonderful tree. From the nut 
large quantities of oil are made, and the milk contained in it is 
given to cattle. From the fibre of the thick outer husk, cordage is 
made, and also from it are manufactured vast quantities of " coir " 
yarn, from which is fabricated the cocoa-nut matting that is used 
extensively in America, and, indeed, all over the world. The 
outer shells of the nut and the wood itself are used for fuel, wdiile 
the leaves furnish a thatch for the native dwellings. Thus every 
part of this wonderful tree is utilized. The process of oil-making 
is quite simple. The nuts are cut open, and the meat extracted and 
placed in the sun for a time until it shrinks and the oil begins to 
exude ; it is then placed in a rude stone-mill, which is at the same 
time a sort of press. This is turned by bullock-power, and the 
oil is half-ground, half-pressed, and runs out through an aperture 
at the bottom into receptacles provided to receive it. This pro- 
cess is quite rude and primitive, and does not extract so large a per- 
centage of the oil as the more perfect machhiery does which has 
been established by Europeans in Colombo for the same purpose. 
I could hardly believe that by this improved process a quantity of 
oil equivalent to sixty-three per cent, of the entire weight of the 
nut is extracted. The oil is used here for burning in lamps and 
other purposes, but is principally sent to Europe, where it is 
utilized in the manufacture of soap, candles, etc., and portions of 
it are also refined and used in the manufacture of hair-oil and 
various toilet preparations. 

The natives of Ceylon are a bright, intelligent-looking race, 
with an erect, manly carriage ; are of a lighter color than most of 
the inhabitants of the Malayan Archipelago; and some of the 
women are positively beautiful, ^/i jpassant^ there is here a 



APPENDIX. 317 

feature in polygamy different from any I Iiave ever heard of — ■ 
instead of a man having several wives, a woman here has several 
husbands. We heard of one case where one woman had married 
a family of six brothers, and it is a very common thing for a 
woman to have two or more husbands. So it seems that there is 
one part of the world, at least, where the female sex retaliates 
upon the doctrine and the disciples of Brigham Young. 

Colombo is a city of considerable size, but it is the slowest and 
most deliberate place which it has been my fortune to visit. The 
cab-drivers are asleep two-thirds of the time, and, to match them, 
their horses seem to be all cripples. Still, there is a great -deal of 
business done in Colombo, it being the shipping port for all the 
great coffee-plantations of the interior, the cinnamon-groves, and 
most of the cocoa-nut oil and coir-yarn manufactories of the island. 
As a merchant here said, " Our exports may be all enumerated 
under the head of C's — coffee, cinnamon, cocoa-nut, and coir," and 
when we reflect that they all come from Colombo, Ceylon, is it 
not a remarkable conjunction of C's ? 

COFFEE CULTFEE — CO'FFEE IN THE EAST AS A BEVEEAGE — LONG 
NAMES, ETC., ETC. 

Ceylon coffee has always ranked high as regards quality, pos- 
sessing a mild flavor somewhat similar to Java. Yet, strange to 
say, I did not have a good cup of coffee while in Ceylon, nor did 
the coffee I tasted in Java at all compare with that which we 
make in the United States. We frequently hear the quality of 
the coffee obtained at the railway eating-houses in the United 
States reviled by Americans ; but at any of the stations along the 
lines of the Kew York Central, or the Kew York and New Haven 
roads, you can get a cup of coffee which is perfection itself com- 
pared with that which I found in Java or Ceylon, while the coffee 
which I have in my own house, when at home, is a nectar, the 
mere recollection of which in this far-distant country titillates my 
palate when I think of it. They may talk about the crudeness of 
American civilization in a gastronomic point of view, but in all 
my travels, I have never yet found a city, unless it be Vienna, 
where the quality of this universal beverage at all compares with 



318 COFFEE. 

that to be found in ISTew Tork. I speak advisedly in this respect, 
although it may be egotistically ; but on the principle that 

*' Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat," 

I believe that he who caters for others should be a judge of qual- 
ity, and I have studied the conditions necessary for the produc- 
tion of good coffee as carefully as the true artist studies the effects 
necessary for the production of a perfect picture. 

This is a great country for long names. I thought, when I 
arrived in Hong-Kong and read some of the names on the signs 
of the Parsee merchants there, that I had reached the limit in this 
respect ; but I am now convinced that Ceylon can take the palm. 
If I should spell out and send you, detached from other matter, 
some of the names which I see here, you would certainly think 
that I was exaggerating ; so I have cut from to-day's Ceylon Times 
an advertisement of an official sale. 

FISCAL'S SALE. 



No, 69,393. 
IN THE DISTRICT COURT OF KANDY, 



Kana Rana Ghana Shoona Palaniappa Chetti Plaintiff, 

vs. 
Periyakarpen Seruwokaran's Son Kali Muttu Kankani Defendant. 



Notice is hereby given, that on SATURDAY, the 9th December, 1876, at 
one (1) o'clock p.m.. will be SOLD BY PUBLIC AUCTION at the premises, the 
following property belonging to the Defendant in the above case : 

All the Right Title and interest of the Defendant to and in the following 
Lands (subject, however, to the terms and conditions of the Planting Voucher 
No. 809, dated 9th June, 1871) to wit:— 

1. — The Garden called Hapugahamulagawa Watta, about 12 acres in extent. 

2. — The Garden called Elagaswatta alias Nawagahamulawatta, about one 
acre in extent, both situated at Dorakumbura in the Gampahasiyapattuwa of 
Matale South. D. A. D'ALWIS, 

For Deputy FiscaL 
Deputy Fiscal' s Office, 

Matale, 13th November, 1876. 

This speaks for itself, and I think, as a phonetic curiosity, is 
worthy of publication. 



APPENDIX. 319 

SUNDRY SPICES. — THEIR GROWTH AND PREPARATION. 

I have been much interested in observing the growth and 
manner of preparation of various kinds of spices, not separately 
affording sufficient material for an article, but which, grouped to- 
gether, will furnish matter enough for one letter. Of these I will 
first mention cinnamon, Mdiich, in the shape in which it appears 
in commerce, is, of course, familiar to every grocer, but would 
hardly be distinguished from any other bush when seen growing 
in the field. Ceylon is the greatest centre of production for true 
cinnamon, but more of wild cinnamon, or cassia, is obtained from 
Malacca and along the coasts of Siam and Cochin-China. The 
cinnamon tree, if left to itself, sometimes attains the height of 
thirty to forty feet, and from twelve to eighteen inches in diame- 
ter ; but, when cultivated, it is kept cut down close to the ground, 
and the fresh, new shoots only are allowed to grow, until they 
attain a height of from five to six feet, and are about half an inch 
in diameter. Some of the cinnamon-groves of Ceylon are very 
extensive, covering many hundred acres. They are originally 
planted in rows about six feet apart, and the plants are, perhaps, 
four feet distant from each other in the rows. The ground is 
usually M^ell cultivated, being kept free from weeds and affording 
a chance for the plants to make a vigorous growth. When the 
shoots are three or four years old, they attain the size above- 
mentioned, and are usually free from branches until near the top. 
They are then cut close to the ground and the grayish, outside 
bark carefully scraped off. The inner bark, which is of a yellow- 
ish red color, is then ripped up longitudinally with a knife, and 
gradually loosened until it can be taken off. It is then spread in 
the sun to dry, when it curls up into the quill-like form in which 
it is known as the cinnamon of commerce. Some of the quills 
are smaller than others, and these are inserted within the larger 
ones, so as to make them as compact as possible. There are usu- 
ally two crops gathered in Ceylon — one in April, the other in 
November, the first being much the larger of the two, and more 
easily gathered, owing to the sap being more abundant at that 
time, which allows the bark to be taken off with greater facility 
and despatch. The smell of the green cinnamon-bark is delight- 



320 COFFEE. 

fully fragrant, but it varies greatly in quality, tlie younger and 
thinner pieces usually being much the best. The root of the cin- 
namon tree contains camphor, and the fruit, which is a sort of a nut, 
somewhat resembling an acorn, yields an acrid kind of oil called 
" ciimamon suet," which is also quite fragrant, and in Ceylon was 
formerly made into candles for the exclusive use of the nobility. 

Cassia is prepared in the same manner as cinnamon, and is 
really a variety of that tree. There is much M'ild cassia gathered, 
however, and there is consequently a lack of the uniformity in 
thickness of bark and in perfection of preparation which we find 
in the Ceylon cinnamon, which brings a much higher price than 
cassia and, almost without exception, is sent to Europe. "VVe 
occasionally get small parcels in America, but by far the larger 
portion of what is consumed in America under the name of 
cinnamon is really cassia. 

NUTMEGS. 

Kutmegs are grown more or less in all of the great Spice 
Islands of the Malayan Archipelago, and also on the Peninsula, 
Penang being one of the principal ports from which they are ex- 
ported. The nutmeg-tree is a very beautiful one, growing in a 
compact conical shape to the height of thirty or forty feet. It 
has a dark, glossy leaf, and bears a profusion of fruit, which, 
however, on the tree, does not much resemble the nutmeg of 
commerce. In fact, when growing, it looks precisely like a black 
walnut, and the outer husk is of about the same thickness and 
consistency as that of the walnut. When the nut is ripe it 
cracks open and exposes the nut, growing closely around which is 
the fibrous mace. I had always supposed that the mace formed 
immediately next the kernel, which is the mitmeg of commerce, 
but on examining it closely, I found that the kernel was contained 
within a thin, hard shell, and it is around this shell that the mace 
forms. "When the nuts are ripe they drop or are taken off the 
tree, and the mace at that time beino; of a bris-ht scarlet color 
looks very beautiful ; when it is separated and dried in the sun, 
however, it gradually assumes the brownish red or orange color 
which is familiar to all grocers. The nuts are also dried in the 



APPENDIX. 321 

sun, and wlien tliis process is completed they are usually shipped 
to the place of export, where the outer shell is cracked, and the 
nuts taken out, and packed in casks or cases for shipment. 

CLOVES. 

Cloves grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high, hav- 
ing a handsome pyramidal shape, with leaves that are large, 
glossy, and ever-green. It is a native of Malacca, but is now 
grown in nearly all of the Spice Islands of the Indian Ocean, the 
larger part of the crop coming from Amboyna, in the island of 
Ternate. Many years ago the Dutch undertook to control the 
production of this spice and to confine its growth to this island ; 
they, therefore, destroyed the clove trees in the other Spice Islands, 
but the high prices which they demanded gradually led to its cul- 
tivation in territory outside of their jurisdiction, and they after- 
ward abandoned that policy. Still most of the cloves now pro- 
duced are grown in Dutch territory, and the high prices which 
have prevailed during the last year or two have been attributed 
partly to a failure in the crop in Ternate and partly to the Aclieen 
war, which has considerably interfered with the supply usually 
derived from Sumatra. The cloves of commerce are not, as many 
suppose, the fruit of the clove tree, but are i\\e flower buds. The 
ripe fruit in shape resembles a small olive ; it is of a dark red 
color, with one or two cells containing as many seeds, and it is 
also aromatic to a certain extent, and sometimes appears in com- 
merce in a dried state under the curious name of " mother of 
cloves." It is not nearly ^ pungent, however, as the flower stems. 
Indeed, the whole tree — leaves, bark, and wood — seems to be 
impregnated in some degree with the strong, distinctive clove 
flavor ; but the flower buds are the principal commercial product 
of the tree. When first gathered, they are of reddish color, 
but in the drying process, which is generally partly done by wood 
fires and partly in the sun, they turn a deep brown color, as they 
are when they reach us in America. Although the tree grows 
wild to some extent, it is regularly cultivated in plantations, the 
plants being set some ten or fifteen feet apart and carefully pruned 
and cared for. 
21 



322 COFFEE. 



INDIA. 



A bird's-eye view — ITS EXTENT, POPULATION, PRODUCTIONS, GOV- 
ERNMENT, ETC. 

One cannot see a great deal of India in three weeks, nor 
within the narrow limits of a letter can he describe all that he 
sees ; but time is precious now-a-days, general ideas have some- 
times to answer where a more thorough investigation of a subject 
would be desirable, and happy is he who can take the cream, and, 
discarding the water — " boil down," as it were, his ideas into the 
smallest possible compass. 

" British India " extends from Cape Comorin, on the south, 
to the Himalayas, on the north, a distance of about eighteen hun- 
dred miles, and from the river Indus, on the west, to the Ganges, 
on the east, more than twelve hundred. In addition to this, it 
includes a considerable portion of Burmah and Siam (mentioned 
on the map under the head of " British Burmah ") lying on the 
opposite side of the Bay of Bengal, and within this territory is situ- 
ated the " Rangoon district," from which comes all our Rangoon 
rice. "Within this total area are crowded over two hundred mil- 
lions of people, and it is the production and consumption of this 
immense number of human beings that has constituted the largest 
and most remunerative item in the commerce of Great Britain for 
many years. Until we pause to think, it is hard to realize M^hat 
" two hundred millions " means when applied to human beings — 
what their production and consumpti6n may amount to. 

A few figures in regard to rice culture, which I found among 
Government papers at Calcutta, served to widen my ideas in this 
respect. Speaking of but three districts, containing about sixty- 
five millions of inhabitants, the report stated that the annual 
consumption, exclusive of reserve stores, exports and quantities 
required for seed, was twelve and a quarter million tons, or twenty- 
seven billion four hundred and forty million pounds, a quantity 
equivalent to nearly one hundred and twenty-five million bags, or 
forty-five million tierces. I do not now remember the size of our 
Carolina rice crop, but I believe it was last year under eighty 
thousand tierces, or say about twenty thousand tons, against 



APPENDIX. 323 

twelve and a quarter millions, and this, be it remembered, was 
only the consumption of less than one-third of the native popula- 
tion of India. 

It is astonishing, however, how soon one becomes accustomed 
to figures, which, at first, perplex the understanding. When I 
first landed in India I could hardly believe the reports, which were 
then fast coming in, of the drowning of ten thousand natives by a 
tidal wave, which was raised in the Bay of Bengal and had swept 
over some of the coast islands. Later, however, after I had 
crossed India and seen the dense mass of population, I had no 
difficulty in comprehending and believing the ofiicial report of the 
loss of life, which had then reached the enormous number of two 
hundred and fifteen thousand. And yet this catastrophe, appall- 
ing as it was in magnitude, seemed to be quite overshadowed in 
the public mind by the famine which was at the time prevailing 
over a large pm-tion of Southern India. Everywhere the railways 
were choked with rice and grain trains bound for that part of the 
country, and hundreds of vessels were employed in transporting 
rice from every point of supply in the East. 

About two centuries ago, enterprising British merchants laid 
the foundations of British power in India, and shrewd old England, 
ever taking advantage of circumstances, has steadily pushed for- 
ward her boundaries, until now her possessions in the East have 
become, as they were recently termed by an English statesman, 
the " Greater Britain." Had she been as wise in the treatment 
of her American colonies, it is probable that they would not now 
have been an independent nation, but the injustice of George the 
Third lost her the choicest gem in her coronet. Perhaps, how- 
ever, this circumstance had something to do with changing her 
colonial policy and strengthening her hold on her other posses- 
sions. It is a noteworthy fact, that while England was losing 
America she w^as gaining India, and the period immediately suc- 
ceeding our war of the Kevolution was the one in which she made 
the greatest progress there. Up to the mutiny in 1857 English 
interests in India were represented by the celebrated " East India 
Company," which, in a century and a half, had grown np from a 
comparatively small commercial enterprise to be a great govern- 
ment, maintaining an army of many thousand men, making laws, 



324 COFFEE. 

coining money, and exercising all the other principal attributes 
of sovereignty — a government which, in its relations to the Eng- 
lish nation, was a sort of government within a government — an 
imjperiunh in irrvperio. The controlling power was vested in a 
court, or board of directors, elected by the stockholders, and for 
a long time its affairs were ably and honestly managed, but after 
a time it became unwieldy, abuses set in, and after the mutiny it 
was thought that the interest of the entire nation in India had be- 
come so great, that it was better the country should come under 
the direct management of the Crown. This was done, and thus 
ended the greatest commercial venture the world has ever known. 

The impression that a traveller gets of India in December is 
that by far the greater area is a dusty, arid, sterile waste ; but 
this apparently unproductive soil is really very rich, and, when 
irrigated, produces, under even the careless cultivation of the 
natives, enormous crops of rice and various other grains ; rape, lin, 
and other seeds ; hemp, cotton, coffee, pepper, indigo, opium, 
sugar, tea, and many other products. 

The Hindoo race or races are among the oldest of which we 
have any historical record, and the wealth and culture of ancient 
India was long the wonder of the Eastern w^orld. It was not, 
however, until the invasion of jSTorthern India by the Mahome- 
dans and the establishment of the " Great Mogul " dynasty, that 
the attention of western nations was so strongly drawn to it ; but 
the semi-barbarous magnificence of these remarkable rulers soon 
became proverbial throughout the civilized world. This was dur- 
ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, after which their star 
gradually declined, and their power was finally broken by the war- 
like tribes of the Northwest. After that came a period of anar- 
chy, the inhabitants of the different provinces constantly fighting 
among themselves for spoils and power, until finally, in the 
eighteenth century, British power began to make itself felt, and by 
dint of hard fighting and wise diplomacy it was steadily advanced, 
until it reached its present magnificent proportions. I say steadily 
advanced, for the mutiny iu 1857 can hardly be called a serious 
check to the advancement of British power. It was promptly 
quelled, and the difficulty of communication during that episode 
has led to the construction of an extensive system of railways and 



APPENDIX. 325 

telegraphs connecting all the principal parts of the empire, which 
have contributed, in a remarkable degree, to the subsequent pros- 
perity of India, and renders any further opposition to British rule 
entirely hopeless. At present, the two hundred millions of natives 
are as completely under the control of the two hundred and fifty 
thousand British residents as Poland is under the power of Russia. 
Not that I would compare the English government of India with 
that of the Russian in Poland, for, in my opinion, it is far more 
mild, just, and equitable. Indeed, the strongest item in England's 
hold upon India is that she governs wisely and liberally, and 
the mass of the people know that they are much surer of peace 
and justice under the government of the English, than they would 
be mider the despotic rule of their myriad of native chiefs. Of 
these there are nearly five hundred (whose jurisdiction is outside 
of the large district absolutely under British rule, and which may 
be esteemed British territory), of whose domain a recent report to 
Parliament speaks as follows : 

" The nativ^e states of India form one of the most important 
and difficult sections of administration. Every state — and the num- 
ber, including the smaller feudatories, exceeds four hundred and 
sixty — acknowledges the supremacy of the British Government ; 
but, in other respects, their rights and obligations differ from each 
other. Some merely acknowledge our supremacy, like Xepaul ; 
others also undertake to follow our advice and to govern their 
subjects with justice ; others again pay tribute or provide for the 
maintenance of a contingent ; some have power of life and death ; 
others must refer all grave cases to English judges. Nearly all 
have, since the mutiny, received guarantees that their chiefs will 
be allowed to adopt successors on failure of heirs, and their con- 
tinued existence has been thus secured. This measure represents 
a great change of policy, and is a return to that advocated by 
Lord Metcalf in 1837. The policy is now unalterably fixed by 
which existing native States will continue through the admitted 
right of adoption to maintain their positions as now admitted by 
treaty or agreement." 

From this it will be seen that the present system of Indian 
government is quite complex, and requires a vast deal of atten- 
tion to satisfactorily administer its affairs. Upward of forty 



326 COFFEE. 

thousand persons, many of them natives, are employed in the 
civil service, which is based upon that of England, the principal 
features of which are : 1st, competitive examinations in order to 
secure propei-ly qualified persons ; 2d, permanence in office, with 
a regular system of promotion for faithful service ; 3d, a pen- 
sion on retirement, in proportion to length of service. When we 
in America embody these features in our civil service, we will 
have honest and efficient management in our public service and 
tranquillity and prosperity in business affairs ; but when men are 
turned out of office, no matter how faithfully they have served 
the country, to make room for the political henchmen of members 
of Congress, and an opportunity is afforded every four years for 
eighty thousand " outs " to try and oust eighty thousand " ins," 
we cannot expect either a satisfactory public service or a prosper- 
ous state of business. In 1876 England maintained in India an 
army of about sixty thousand Europeans, and one hundred and 
thirty thousand native or Sepoy troops, while the military force or 
retainers of the native chiefs numbered, all told, about three hun- 
dred and eighteen thousand. If these were a unit against British 
rule, England might have hard work to maintain her position — 
a fact that she well understands, and, therefore, carefully fosters 
the rivalries and jealousies of the rival chiefs, for which they are 
noted. These, in connection with the improved means of com- 
nnmication and the occupation of strategic points with white troops, 
makes her position, as before stated, almost impregnable. 

In religious matters she does not interfere, and in this respect 
everybody is free to follow his own preferences. It is estimated 
that of the two hundred millions of population, about one hundred 
and sixty millions are Hindoos, forty millions Mahometans, and 
about eight hundred and fifty thousand are Christians, of whom 
more than six hundred thousand are Catholics, resident principally 
in the south of India. 

" Caste " is one of the prominent features in Hindoo life, and 
furnishes a most interesting study in itself. It is really a division 
of the population into several ranks, each of which is profaned by 
coming into contact with the others, or with Europeans ; formerly 
infractions of many of the rules of caste were punished by death, 
but now, under English government, this practice has been abol- 



APPENDIX. 327 

islied, and some of the rules have sunk into disuse. Still most of 
them are in force, Math a power far greater than any rules of 
etiquette among Western nations, and violations are subject to an 
ostracism which is often fatal to business or social comfort and 
prosperity. The effect is to destroy enterprise and retard the 
progress of the whole country, for the great mass of the people 
feel that, no matter how hard they may try, they can never rise 
above the level in which they were born. 

WAYSIDE SCENES, THOUGHTS AND FANCIES, IN INDIA. 

From Colombo, Ceylon, across to Tuticorin, in Southern India, 
is only about one hundred and thirty miles, and landing here I 
received my fii-st impressions of India. Southern India is quite 
unlike the JSTorthern part, both in soil and productions, appear- 
ance and population ; and although it is somewhat out of the 
beaten route of travel, my few days' stay there were most interest- 
ing and instructive. Here we find the population free from the 
character which has been impressed upon the population of ^North- 
ern India by their Mahomedan conquerors of the Mogul era, and 
there are few or none professing the Mahomedan religion. Here, 
also, we find the old style of half -pyramidal, half -pagoda shaped 
Hindoo temples in their perfection, with their cars of Juggernaut 
and other paraphernalia, the former of which, however, under 
English rule, are rapidly falling into disuse. The natives are no 
longer permitted to sacrifice themselves under its wheels, which, 
in former times, was its most impressive feature. I travelled 
from Tuticorin to Madm-a and from Madura to Trichinopoly, a 
distance of over two hundred miles, by a narrow-gauge railroad 
(three feet three and one-third inches), very comfortably but very 
slowly. The road had just been opened, and things, as yet, were 
not working smoothly. At one water station the tank had proved 
leaky and was being repaired. In default of the usual facilities a 
hundred or more natives with earthen water-jars were set at work 
carrying water from a capacious well, or hole about twenty feet 
square and as many deep, from which the supply of water, when 
the tank was in order, was usually pumped. After waiting an 
hour or more in the cars, I became impatient at the delay, and 



328 COFFEE. 

taking my sun-hat and an umbrella, I went out in the broiling 
sun (19th of JSTovember), to prospect. I found the long train 
occupied, with the exception of our car, entirely by natives in 
third-class carriages, myself and two friends, with the engineer, 
being the only Eui'opeans on the train. The native conductor 
was in vain trying to induce the lazy blacks to expedite their work, 
but without effect. I never saw such deliberate mortals in my 
life, although I could hardly blame them, for the temperature was 
over 100°, and much exertion, for a European at least, was neither 
comfortable nor safe. On consulting with the engineer, however, 
I found that the engine was steaming out the water faster than 
it was being put into the tender, and that something would have 
to be done or we would never get to Madura. There were plenty 
of men, but they were dawdling up and down the steps leading to 
the well, each one filling his own jar and occupying about half an 
hour in carrying it from the well to the engine. My first step 
was to promise them, through the conductor, three rupees, " back- 
sheesh " (gift money), if they would submit to my orders ; and 
then ranging them in line, I soon had a continuous stream of jars 
passing rapidly from hand to hand between the well and the 
engine. As soon as they caught the idea they entered into it with 
a will. Raising a strange, weird song or chorus, they gradually 
accelerated their motion until it grew into a positive enthusiasm, 
and no line of buckets at an American fire ever circulated faster 
than did those earthen water-jars at that station in Southern India. 
In ten minutes the reservoir of the tender was filled, and we were 
again en route for Madura, where we arrived at 9.30 p.m., hot, 
tired, and dusty. 

At this place, as at many others in India, the only hotel is a 
" travellers' bungalow," which is a small, one-story house built by 
the English Government and placed in charge of a native, who is 
obliged to provide meals and other conveniences at a fixed tariff. 
The only furniture is a bedstead or two, with mattrasses, and 
generally two or three chairs, together with a table. Every trav- 
eller is supposed to provide his own bedding, soap, and towels. 
The same system is in vogue in Ceylon, and, as a curiosity, I ap- 
pend a scale of charges, which I copied from the tariff, which is 
posted up in every bungalow : 



APPENDIX. 829 

SCALE OP REST-HOUSE CHARGES. 

Breakfast, with eggs, fowls, curry and rice, or equivalent D 1 50 

Dinner — Soup, ham, eggs, potatoes, fowl, curry and rice 1 50 

Supper — Ham, eggs, potatoes, curry and rice 1 50 

Room, exceeding two hours, not exceeding twenty -four hours 37^ 

Bedroom, with one bed, not exceeding twenty-four hours 50 

Bedroom, with two beds or one double bed, not exceeding twenty-four 

hours 75 

Bedroom, with three beds, not exceeding twenty-four hours 1 00 

One sofa, without linen 37i 

One sofa, with linen , 50 

Stable for one horse 50 

Straw for one horse 25 

Grass for one horse 12|^ 

Carriages 12^ 

Oil for bedrobm, per night 25 

Cup of tea, with milk and sugar 25 

Cup of coffee, with milk and sugar 25 

Bottle of beer or porter, Bass or Allsopp, English bottled 75 

Bottle of wine 2 00 

Bottle of brandy 2 75 

Bottle of soda-water 17 

Bottle of lemonade 25 

Pint bottle of beer or porter, Bass or Allsopp 50 

Pint bottle of wine 1 25 

Pint bottle of brandy 1 50 

Brandy, per glass 25 

Clean sheets and pillow-slips 37^ 

Cold bath, salt water or fresh 25 

Hot bath 371 

For use of the rest-house utensils, per diem, irrespective of the number 

of individuals 50 

Signed, John Mason, 

For Chairman P. R. C. 
16th of October, 1875. 

[Note. — A Ceylon dollar is only equivalent to fifty cents of our currency, so 
the above figures must be divided by two to obtain a correct idea of amounts.] 

At the larger places, wliere there is a European population of 
any magnitude, hotels are being established and are gradually su- 
perseding " bungalows," but in the early days of India, when the 
white population was very sparse, and yet it was necessary to 
keep up certain lines of communication, with shelter and refresh- 
ment houses at regular distances, the bungalow was a necessity, 
and indeed the Government had to provide means of transporta- 



330 COFFEE. 

tion, as well as entertainment, and the " dak," or post carriage, is 
still maintained in many parts of India, while these refreshment 
or post stations are commonly known as " dak bungalows." The 
word bungalow is a very common one, not only in India, but 
throughout the tropical countries of the East ; where it originated 
I do not know, but, in India, it means a one-story house, generally 
constructed with very thick walls of masonry, and the roof thickly 
thatched with straw, projecting several feet on every side, form- 
ing a sort of porch or veranda to shade the entrances. 

The natives of Southern India are tall in stature, of erect and 
graceful carriage, and, although quite black, having a European 
type of feature. Dressed in their flowing white robe and turban 
they present quite a picturesque appearance, and, as they stood 
gazing at our train as it went whirling by in the dusk of the even- 
ing, many of them were positively statuesque. The women are 
not in general as fine-looking as the men, and render themselves 
hideous by wearing immense rings in their noses, on these rings 
stringing all their available wealth in the shape of jewels and 
precious stones. In some instances I saw women who, in all 
other respects, bore every sign of poverty, thus wearing pearls 
which were worth many hundreds of dollars. To some extent 
also this practice of carrying their wealth about them in the 
shape of jewels prevails with the men ; at Trichinopoly the 
station-master woi'e, as earrings, two solitaire diamonds which 
could not have been worth less than one thousand dollars each. 
This custom cannot be attributed entirely to personal vanity, but 
is largely due to the uncertainty of ownership which formerly at- 
tached to all forms of property which were not portable and 
which could not be concealed at a moment's notice. 

I proceeded from Trichinopoly to Madras, between three 
and four hundred miles, through a rather unprepossessing coun- 
try, and taking steamer from that port proceeded direct to Cal- 
cutta. Madras, formerly the most important European city in 
India, has made comparatively little progress during the past half 
century, and is now quite overshadowed in importance by both 
Calcutta and Bombay. Calcutta is situated on the Eiver Hooghly 
— one of the mouths of the Ganges — a hundred or more miles 
from its outlet. At the entrance of the river the coast is flat 



APPENDIX. 331 

and barren ; but, further up, the banks are covered with cocoa-nut, 
pahnjra, and other pahns, from under which native mud-huts 
are everywhere peeping out. Boats loaded down by the head in 
a curious manner were crossing and passing up and down, and as 
we approached the city the most prominent feature for several 
miles were brick-kilns, impressing the beholder with the idea that 
very extensive building operations must be going on. I found, 
however, that they not only used brick for the purposes that we 
do, but that the bricks are again pulverized after turning and 
used for making mortar, there being no good natural sand for that 
purpose. There is also a large quantity of brick used for paving 
sidewalks, courts, etc. 

The population of Calcutta, including both native and foreign, 
is estimated at about five hundred thousand. The European 
part of the city has wide, spacious streets and squares, orna- 
mented by many statues and monuments, and, being the seat of 
the Anglo-Indian government, many fine public buildings are 
located here. Along the water-front are fine accommodations for 
shippers, and here one sees moored at all times a large fleet of 
steamers, besides numbers of the finest and largest class of clipper 
sailing vessels. Formerly the accommodations for shipping were 
quite insufficient and insecure ; but some years ago, after great 
loss had been incurred from the visitation of a typhoon, the con- 
trol of the harbor and other matters pertaining to shipping %vere 
transferred from the municipal authorities to a " Port and Harbor 
Commission," consisting of eminent merchants who were chiefly 
interested in having adequate facilities provided. Upon this 
commission was conferred the right to issue bonds for the con- 
struction of new accommodations, to collect all port and wharf- 
age dues, and under its direction the present fine facilities were 
soon provided. Probably no port in the world now possesses 
more convenient and economical accommodations for shipping than 
does Calcutta, and this under great natural disadvantages. Across 
the river is the suburb of Howi'ah, which is the terminus of the 
East Indian Railway, which furnishes accommodation with Central, 
Northern, and Western India. The native part of Calcutta has 
wide streets, but they are lined with a dirty, tumbledown class of 
dwellings, not much better than the mud huts of the native villages. 



332 COFFEE. 

Here, for the first time during my trip, the Oriental custom of 
the sechision of women becomes prominent — women, excepting 
those of the lower classes, rarely being seen in the streets, and, 
when they venture from their houses being conveyed in carriages 
with closed blinds or in closed " palkahs." (The " palkah " is a 
sort of sedan-chair or box, resting upon poles, which is carried 
about on men's shoulders.) 

Polygamy is practised here by the natives to a greater or less 
extent, and the women's apartments, which in Turkey are known 
as the seraglio or harem, are here known as the " zenara," and the 
same term also is in some instances applied to the occupants. A 
curious illustration of the extent to which this seclusion of women 
is carried is the advertisement of a lady photographer in Calcutta 
who announces herself as a "zenara photographer." Another 
curious feature in Indian life with which we first came promi- 
nently in contact at Calcutta is that of caste. One servant brings 
you food, but his hands would be utterly profaned if he were to 
take away the empty plate. One furnishes your room with water 
and towels, but another one has to be provided to carry away the 
slops. A Brahmin, eating at the same table with a European, or 
leaving his own country and crossing the sea, breaks his caste, and 
is ever after utterly ostracised for so doing. In Northern India 
we hired a carriage, and were surprised to see, besides the driver, 
an additional man accompanying us. "We protested that we did 
not want more than one man, but the second fellow persisted in 
accompanying us, perching up behind and shouting at all who got 
in our way. When we alighted, he performed the services of a 
footman in opening the door, and, when we stopped to feed the 
horses, this man unharnessed and cared for them. On inquiry, 
we found that it would be beneath the caste of our driver to per- 
form these services, and thus, two stalwart men had to be provided 
to perform the work of one. In many other ways these absurd 
customs of caste have the same eft'ect ; and, as before indicated, 
they serve to destroy all enterprise, for a person born in one caste 
can never rise to another. 

The population is so dense, however, that labor is exceedingly 
plenty and cheap, and it has been surmised that many of the 
absurd rules of caste were designed and prescribed by the ancient 



APPENDIX. 333 

Brahmins to divide labor into many departments, thus furnishing 
employment for many hands. Labor is so cheap here that every 
family can, if they wish, have a dozen servants for a less sum than 
two cost in America. At the hotels in Calcutta each guest is pro- 
vided with a servant as soon as he arrives, and we had hard work 
to explain to ours that we did not want them to accompany us up 
country. This class of servants are generally called " kitmaghars." 
Many of them are Mahomedans, and being exempt from the 
rules of caste, which so rigidly govern the Hindoos, they are the 
best servants in the world. They black your boots, brush your 
clothes, dust your room, arrange the mosquito netting, turn down 
the sheets ready for you to get into bed, and almost assist j'ou to 
close your eyes. After you have retired, they spread their blan- 
ket on the floor in front of your door, and no one can cross the 
threshold without stepping over their body. This, at first, seems 
strange to an American, who is in the habit of doing everything 
for himself, but I soon became accustomed to it, and when I left 
India missed these little attentions almost as much, I fancy, as 
would one long resident there. People all take their servants with 
them when they travel, and a very low rate is provided for their 
transportation by the railroad companies, and for their board by 
the hotels. 

One of the queer institutions of Calcutta is the " Great East- 
ern Hotel and Merchandise Company, Limited." As indicated by 
the name, the company carries on both a hotel and a merchandise 
business. The structure covers a large area, the first floor being 
occupied as a sort of general store or bazaar, in which one can find 
almost everything, either for the inner or outer man — or woman. 
I thought that I had seen a large variety in some of our American 
stores, but I certainly never saw such a jumble of dry -goods, both 
for male and female wear, millinery, carpets, boots and shoes, 
hats and caps, toys and notions, jewelry, groceries, provisions, and 
confectionery, as is collected in the warerooms of the " Great 
Eastern Hotel and Merchandise Company, Limited." The upper 
stories of this immense building are occupied as a hotel, and, as 
usual, when avocations of such a totally different character are 
mixed up with each other, it is not very well managed. Indeed, 
I have not seen a good hotel in India. Ensrlishmen are not cele- 



334 COFFEE. 

brated for keeping good hotels anywhere. The best English 
hotels are clean, and English servants, on an average, much better 
than those we have in America, but the table does not compare 
favorably with that of other countries. Speaking of service, it is 
probable that the good servants which are found in India are 
largely made so by the thorough drilling they receive at the hands 
of the English residents. An Englishman likes, and will have, 
good personal service if it can be obtained, and the Indian ser- 
vants, in most cases, are carefully drilled, and are used to exacting 
masters. Indeed, in some cases they are treated in a very over- 
bearing manner, a curious evidence of which is a notice that was 
posted up in the "Lord Lytton" hotel at Delhi, as follows: 
" Visitors will be good enough not to strike the hotel servants ; 
any complaints made against them, will be attended to." 

At Calcutta I first saw the skins of animals used for holding 
water — the old water-skins of Scripture. Goat-skins are principally 
used for this purpose, the skin being stripped from the animal as 
far as the neck, where it is tied, as are also the legs. It is then 
sewed up tightly, and holds water without leaking. The streets 
are all watered here by men who carry the water in these skins 
slung over their shoulders, and spurt the water from a nozzle at 
the neck. In other parts of India they use the skins of young 
bullocks for the same purpose, but these being large, and contain- 
ing a considerable quantit}'^ of water, are slung over the backs of 
other bullocks, like pack-saddles, one on each side, and in this 
way, in districts where water is scarce, it is sometimes conveyed 
long distances. 

A feature of Calcutta, also, are the kites and crows ; the latter 
are somewhat smaller than the American crow, and instead of 
being jet-black, the breast and back are of a greenish blue. They 
fairly swarm throughout the city, are apparently never molested 
by the inhabitants, and are the sauciest creatures imaginable, fre- 
quently flying in at windows and carrying off not only food, but 
other small articles which attract their attention. The kites, 
a species of hawk, a little larger than our American crow, are 
also very plentiful, and, together with the crows, act the part of 
scavengers ; at times the whole firmament seems dotted with these 
birds flying overhead. Here and there also we see an enormous 



APPENDIX. 335 

stork, known as tlie "adjutant bird," sitting or standing upon the 
roofs of the houses, and gazing with the utmost dignity at the 
scene below. 

From Calcutta I crossed India by rail. The terminus of the 
East Indian Railway on the Howrah side of the Hooghly, with 
its many tracks, reminds one of the Pennsylvania road at Phila- 
delphia. The ascent from the coast is very gradual, and there is 
much sameness in the landscape for several hundred miles, A 
novel feature, that I note as we fly along, is the telegraph poles, 
which are mostly made of iron, although here and there is a shaft 
of granite, which serves as an intermediate stretcher for the wires. 
The stations, many of them, are covered with the beautiful morn- 
ing-glory creeper, which grows here in great luxuriance over trel- 
lised-walls and buildings, presenting a very beautiful appearance, 
and furnishing a grateful shade. Here and there I saw threshing- 
floors, a hard, smooth, circular piece of ground, upon which sheaves 
of unthreshed grain are thrown and cattle driven round and round 
upon it — the veritable old threshing-floors of Scripture — and I 
noticed that none of the cattle were muzzled, although it is not 
probable that the scriptural law, " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox," 
etc., is known and obeyed here. Everywhere also I saw irrigation- 
wells, from which oxen were raising, by means of a pulley and 
huge leathern bucket, water for irrigating the surrounding plain. 
In the south also I saw this being done by men, sometimes half 
a dozen at once being perched high in the air upon enormous 
well-sweeps, upon which they scrambled backward and forward, 
alternately raising and depressing the long end of the sweep, and 
raising the water by means of their weight acting on the sweep 
as a lever. It seems strange that they should not have utilized 
wind-power for this purpose, when windmills are so successfully 
used elsewhere. 

I made my first stop at Benares, the holy city of the Hin- 
doos. This is perhaps one of the most interesting points in India 
— a great city, situated on the banks of the Ganges, containing a 
large population, a majority of which, it is estimated, are pilgrims 
who are constantly coming from all parts of India to confess their 
sins before the celebrated gods, and to wash them away in the 
waters of the river, which are also esteemed sacred. Almost 



336 COFFEE. 

everything is worshipped here : idols, cattle, pigeons, monkeys, 
and the river itself. It is said that there are upward of two 
thousand five hundred temples in the city, including those of the 
Buddhists, Mahomedans, and the various sects of the Hindoos, the 
latter of which are completely filled with idols of all sorts and 
sizes, mostly springing, however, from the parent gods, Brahma, 
Yishnu, and Siva. One temple is devoted entirely to monkeys, 
of which we saw a hundred or more chasing each other over the 
walls and cutting up a variety of " monkey shines." In other 
temples and on the streets and " ghats " (steps leading down to the 
river) are quantities of cattle, which roam hither and thither at 
their own free will, feeding on the offerings of the pilgrims — 
which evidently keep them in the best possible condition — and 
leading what nmst be an ideal animal life ; for, instead of bear- 
ing the burdens of the human race, and often coming to an 
untimely end to serve as food for them, they here lead a lazy, 
well-fed existence to the end of their days. Pigeons also, are 
esteemed sacred, and are provided for in the same way. Indeed, 
I believe, according to the Hindoo religion, all animal life is 
sacred, and certain it is that orthodox Hindoos subsist entirely 
upon a vegetable diet. There can hardly be a more picturesque 
scene than to take a boat and float down the Ganges, its upper 
banks lined with temples and the residences of the wealthier 
classes, and lower down with " ghats," or steps, where the people 
come down to bathe and drink. According to the Hindoo belief, 
the waters of the Ganges wash away all sins, and the banks of 
the river are constantly lined with people bathing and praying. 
In the early morning the women come, almost before it is light, 
timidly veiling their faces from the gaze of the passers-by, and 
after performing their ablutions retire to make room for others. 
In the winter-time it is not by any means comfortable, for in this 
latitude in India the climate is quite cold, and the morning we 
floated down the river it was freezing. Yet I saw crowds of 
men and women dipping themselves in the water, saying their 
prayers with chattering teeth, and carrying away their small brass 
vessels filled with the sacred water, which the pilgrims carry with 
them to their homes, even to the farthermost parts of India. One 
of the ghats is set apart for the burning of dead bodies, which is 



APPENDIX. 337 

the disposition that the Hindoos make of their dead all over 
India, and here, after they are eonsnmed, their ashes, or a portion 
of them, are thrown upon the bosom of the sacred river to float 
away to the Hindoo paradise, whither they believe its waters 
proceed ; and ever after, at stated periods, wreaths of flowers are 
thrown into the river as offerings to the spirits of the departed 
dead. Here was an opportunity to see cremation practically illus- 
trated, and, landing from the boat, I stood by while the cere- 
mony proceeded. Some of the fimeral pyres were just dying 
out, others were in full blaze, others were just being formed, the 
method of which is to first place several layers of dry wood in 
such a way that it will burn freely and at the same time afford a 
resting-place for the body, which is wrapped in several folds of 
cotton-cloth, and carefully laid upon its wooden bed ; over it are 
again placed several layers of wood, and the torch is applied by 
the oldest surviving male of the family, the members of which 
stand by and watch the flames curling up through the pile. 
There does not seem to be much sentiment involved in this cere- 
mony, and we saw no manifestation of emotion. Indeed, the 
hired attendants seemed to look at it in much the same business 
light that our sextons do, for, as the piles burned down and the 
bodies were partially consumed, they pounded them into the 
embers with long sticks in the most unfeeling way. I never 
realized the force of " Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou 
return " so forcibly as when I saw one of these calcined skulls 
crumble into ashes. But, after all, my impression was that this 
is a very sensible way to dispose of the dead, and my opinion of 
cremation is decidedly better than it was before. 

From Benares I proceeded to Agra, one of the capitals of 
the Mogul emperors, and which, three hundred years ago, was 
said to be a beautiful city. ISTow the native city is composed of a 
collection of squalid, dirty mud-huts, while the European portion 
contains a considerable number of substantial private bungalows, 
together with a few tolerably good public buildings. In the 
suburbs, however, within a circle of five miles or more, are the 
structures which have made Agra, as well as the reign of the 
Mogul emperors, famous. Of these the " Taj Mahal," or Tom!) 
of Banoo Begum, Sultana of the Emperor Shah Jehan, is the 
23 



338 COFFEE. 

most celebrated. It is a beautiful structure of white marble, 
constructed in an octagonal form, and occupying a square of one 
liundred and eighty feet upon a raised platform, also of white 
marble, four hundred feet square. At each corner of this plat- 
form is a graceful minaret, said to be two hundred feet high, 
while on the right and left of the platform, at a distance of per- 
haps three hundred feet, is constrncted a mosque, apparently as 
outworks for the Taj, and constituting, in an architectural sense, 
a sort of frame for the central structure. This is certainly very 
beautiful, although it hardly justiiies the enraptured descriptions 
which many travellers have written. The Italian workers in 
marble of the same era have produced work as fine, and the inlaid 
work is evidently after the Florentine school, probably executed 
under the tuition of Florentine masters. The central dome rises 
two hundred and sixty feet, and directly beneath this are situated 
the sarcophagi of Banoo Begum and her husband, Shah Jehan. 
These are also white marble, and upon them are most elaborately 
carved texts from the Koran. They are also inlaid Mdth malachite, 
topaz, jasper, garnet, cornelian, and other precious stones, in the 
Florentine style. The chamber directly below these contains the 
real sarcophagi, which hold the remains, and which are much 
plainer in execution than those above. The whole structure is 
more or less inlaid with colored marbles, and on the main floor 
there are a number of beautifully carved white-marble screens. 
It is said that the building of the entire structure occupied twenty 
thousand men for eighteen years. More extensive in its plan, 
and more massive than this, but not so beautiful, is the tomb of 
the Emperor Akbar, or Ukbur, the greatest of the Mogul dynasty. 
The enclosure in which it is built at Sikundra, several miles from 
the Taj, is surrounded with enormous walls four miles in extent, 
enclosing a perfect square, in the centre of which is constructed 
what is called a tomb. It is composed of four stories, or plat- 
forms, of red sandstone, supported by pillars of the same mate- 
rial, and on the top of these is built a fifth of white marble, 
which was originally covered by a dome, but is now open to the 
air. In the centre of tliis space is a marble sarcophagus contain- 
ing the ashes of Akbar. The walls surrounding this story are 
filled with elaborately carved marble screens, but none of this 



APPENDIX. 339 

work compares in fineness with that of the Taj. Within the 
walls of the fort, nearer the present city, are what remains of the 
palace, interesting as illustrating the life of Mogul royalty in 
those days, but containing little fine workmanship compared with 
the Taj. 

" Fuhttepore Sikra," twenty-two miles west of Agra, also con- 
tains some fine illustrations of the architecture of the period. It 
was built by the Emperor Akbar as a sort of imperial suburb, 
was six miles in circumference, and enclosed by a high embrasured 
wall of red sandstone. This fortification, with its lofty Saracenic 
gate, still remains in a tolerable state of repair, but the elegant 
structures enclosed within this space are now in ruins. 

A little more than one hundred miles to the northwest from 
Agra is Delhi, another capital of the Mognl empire, with a fort, 
palace, and other structures remaining, which give one a fuller 
idea of the magnificence of the Mogul dynasty than do those at 
Agra. It was here that the f anions " Peacock Throne " was 
erected, in the construction of which Shfdi Jehfui is said to have 
expended six millions of pounds sterling, or thirty millions of dol- 
lars. The audience-chamber in which this was placed is a mag- 
nificent room, and bears the architect's inscription, which Moore 
has made familiar to all the world in " Lalla Rookh : " "If there 
be an elysium on earth, it is this." While one cannot but be im- 
pressed with the magnificence of the works of the Mognl em- 
perors, yet it is probable that their wealth and power have been 
vastly over-estimated, and that the resources of their empire were 
largely expended in building magnificent tombs and palaces, 
while the material interests of the country were left to languish. 
The wealth that in most of the countries of the earth is now dif- 
fused among the people, was then concentrated in the hands of 
royalty and its favorites, while the people were miserably poor. 
Some chroniclers have stated that the Taj was built by forced 
labor, and that the laborers and artisans received only a scanty 
allowance of food in lieu of wages ; that the mortality among 
them was very great, and a satirical couplet was composed at the 
time, to the effect that the memory of Banoo Begum ought to be 
green, for it was watered by the tears of thousands. Travellers in 
all ages have been apt to accept a single work or class of works as 



340 COFFEE. 

evidence of tlie civilization and progress of the age in which they 
were constructed, and then build up a framework of theory, which, 
although plausible, is often not well founded. Much " history " 
has been written in this way, and books of travel are full of high- 
flown writing and descriptions that will not bear analysis by dis- 
passionate and impartial critics. It is so much easier to " soar " 
in describing an admirable work, than it is to quietly appreciate it 
and describe it in plain language. This is especially true of pro- 
fessional writers, who feel bound, perhaps, to make or keep a repu- 
tation for " iine writing," as well as to give an equivalent for the 
sums received for their articles. A magnificent glamour of ro- 
mance has thus been thrown around oriental life which is as false 
as possible. Oriental life, as it has appeared to me, is founded 
upon ignorance, cruelty, and license. Luxury it may have for a 
few, but poverty, dirt, and misery are certainly the patrimony of 
the many. 

Modern Delhi is the chief city of JSTorthern India, possesses 
considerable commerce, and is a sort of entrepot between the 
northern and central provinces of India. At the time we M'ere 
there it was just beginning to fill up with the visitors to the grand 
assemblage at which Queen Victoria was to be proclaimed Em- 
press of India. Its streets exhibited a queer medley, locomotion 
being provided for with elephants, camels, horses, buffaloes, bul- 
locks, and donkeys. Its bazaars were filled with the gorgeous 
shawls of Cashmere and the embroideries and jewelry for the 
manufacture of which Delhi is famous. Native artists, who copy 
photographs exquisitely upon ivory, abound, and jugglers, who 
perform marvellous tricks of conjuring, importune you to witness 
their exhibitions. The guide, or " valet de place," is also an in- 
stitution that flourishes marvellously well in Delhi, and one who 
attached himself to our fortunes, was worthy of description. A 
sleek, oily little man, who glided rather than walked, and who 
exhibited marvellous testimonials as to the value of his services 
from former patrons. I have seen thrifty commissionaires both 
before and since, but I never saw one with such a talent for turn- 
ing " an honest penny " as this fellow. Bishesh Arnath stands at 
the head of his profession in this respect. Of course we knew he 
was making his commission on every carriage we hired and on 



APPENDIX. 341 

every purchase that we made, bnt it was not until we took an 
elephant ride, that we found out the full depth and breadth of 
Bishesh Arnath's capacity in this respect. Here we detected him 
actually stealing half the money which w^e gave him to purchase 
food for our elephants, leaving the poor brutes half starved and 
us wondering at their unamiability of temper. At first I was 
eager for his arrest and strongly resolved to make an example of 
him, but friends from Delhi, who had accompanied us on the 
excursion, took it quite as a matter of course, and advised us to 
pass it quietly by as a native characteristic. This we did, but 
when, at our departure, he came cringing for a certificate or re- 
commendation, we in a manner "got square" with him by writing 
the following in his book, with which he was delighted, and left 
us, promising to show it to every American traveller with whom 
he came in contact : 

" Bishesh Arnath has acted as guide for us in Delhi and vicinity for several 
days. He is a man after our own heart, and has acted with us on the principles 
which have guided us through life. He knows all the best shops, and under- 
stands ' addition, division, and silence.' In short, he belongs to our school of 
humanity, and we heartily recommend him to all who wish to deal with men of 
like progressive stamp. 

(Signed) 



Here we filled in the names of two most notorious public char- 
acters of America, one of whom is now in prison, it is to be hoped 
permanently, and the other, in the opinion of many people, 
deserves to be. In connection with the names, all Americans will 
quickly understand the character of Bishesh Arnath, and I hope 
that it may protect other travellers from his little schemes. 

OUR TIGER HUNT. 

Our tiger hunt, by the way, was not a success. Of course a 
visit to India without a tiger hunt would be Hamlet with the chief 
part left out, and when I arrived in India the most prominent 
feature of my slumbers were dreams of killing "man-eating" 
tigers by the score, and chief among my avocations during the 



342 COFFEE. 

day was the making of inquiries as to where this sport could be 
had in perfection. Through friends in Delhi I finally secured the 
necessary presentation to the Maharajah, or native ruler, of a 
neighboring province, to whom I am indebted for this experi- 
ence. 

In order to make it intelligible to your readers, I shall have to 
preface it with a little account of the habits of tigers and the differ- 
ent ways of hunting them. Native hunters, or " Shikaras," recog- 
nize, more or less, three kinds of tigers. One, the regular game- 
killing tiger, " Lodhia 'bagli^'' as he is called, is retired in his 
habits, living chiefly among the hills, retreating readily from man, 
and altogether a y&:y harmless animal. lie is a light-made 
beast, very active and enduring, and from this, as well as his shy- 
ness, difficult to bring to bay. The " cattle-lifter " is usually an 
older and heavier animal, called " Oontia hagh" from his faintly 
striped coat resembling the color of a camel, quite fleshy, and in- 
disposed to severe exertion. In the cool season he follows the 
herds of cattle wherever they go to graze, or locates himself in 
some strong cover close to the water in the neighborhood, where 
the cattle are taken to drink and to graze on the greener herbage 
found by the side of streams. The third is the regular " man- 
eater," who, it appears, does not take naturally to this diet, but is 
usually driven to make a beginning by stress of circumstances, 
such as being an old tiger with worn-down teeth that require ten- 
derer morsels than bullocks, or a tigress with cubs, that cannot 
conveniently carry a bullock long distances to her lair. Both of 
these causes frequently produce man-eaters, and once they have 
acquired a taste for human flesh nothing else satisfies them. There 
are also three ways of hunting them. One is to watch in a tree 
near a dead carcass which has been killed during the day, and to 
which the tiger usually returns after sundown to feed upon. An- 
other way is to hunt them in their covers on a single elephant 
trained for this purpose, and this, with experienced hunters, is 
usually the most successful, but it is only undertaken during the 
hot weather. A third way is to beat them out of their midday 
retreat with a strong gang of natives, known as " beaters," sup- 
plied with drums, fireworks, etc., the sportsmen themselves being 
posted on elephants or other points of vantage at the likeliest 



APPENDIX. 343 

spots ahead. The latter was the kind of an entertamment which 
was reserved for us. 

Onr party was most hospitably received by the Maharajah, who 
upon being informed that two of us were American gentlemen, 
who had come fifteen thousand miles to enjoy a tiger hunt, made 
immense preparations for a battue. The " Shikari," or professional 
hunter, of some of the villages in the neighborhood was sum- 
moned ; his services, togetlier with those of several hundred natives, 
commanded, and all the necessary preparations made. After a 
sumptuous repast we retired to our beds for the night, with visions 
of driving whole herds of tigers before us, and slaughtering them 
as we would rabbits at home. My hopes were so high and my 
imagination so excited by the novel situation that I must confess 
I was rather restless that night ; but finally morning came, and 
with it the inspection of the preparations. Three elephants stood 
caparisoned with rude " howdahs," while a fourth bore the impos- 
ing trappings of the Maharajah ; this was "for the two American 
gentlemen," upon whom the Maharajah was evidently determined 
to make an impression, while the others were occupied by the rest 
of the party, and, as we afterward discovered, were considered more 
secure and better adapted for the sport. We learned that a " shoul- 
der-of -mutton " shaped piece of jungle, or bottom land, had been 
selected for the beat, and had already been surrounded by the na- 
tives who were to drive it, and after hastily partaking of a break- 
fast we mounted our elephants and set off for the neck, or locality 
where the river on one side and the high bluff on the other 
brought the jungle to a nai-row point. Here we arrived at about 
ten o'clock, and the elephants were ranged in a Y-shape, at dis- 
tances of perhaps one hundred yards, extending completely across 
the neck. Here we waited for a long time without hearing any 
noise or manifestation of the beat, and we began to think that 
there had been some misunderstanding, and that, after all, we were 
to have no sport. Messengers were despatched to see what was 
the cause of the delay, and to try and expedite matters. Finally 
we began to hear a distant sound of " tom-toms," or native drums, 
together with an occasional shot. Then the " mahouts " (drivers) 
of our elephants drew more carefully into line, and all of us grew 
very attentive to the possibility of soon seeing a tiger. Nearer 



344 COFFEE. 

and nearer came the noise, until we could liear tlie sliouts of the 
beaters and realize the fact that, whatever else thej were doing, 
thej were kicking up a most unearthly rumpus. The first live 
thing we saw was a pair of peafowl that came running by, but, of 
course, we disdained this game when larger sport was in prospect. 
Then came half a dozen '* Sambars," or spotted deer, out of range 
for us, but quite near the elephant of one of our Delhi friends, 
who could not resist so fair a shot, and fired, knocking over one 
of them handsomely, and wounding another with a second shot 
from his breechloader before getting out of range. Whether or 
not this had anything to do with preventing our seeing any tigers 
I cannot say, but certain it is that these were all we saw in the 
way of game, and we were soon surroimded with the army of half- 
naked beaters upon whom had devolved the chief labor of the 
hunt. No other promising territory, the Shikari declared, was 
available, and therefore nothing remained but for us to make a 
present to the beaters and return to the Maharajah's palace, ana- 
thematizing the Shikari for not having found us a tiger, and in- 
dulging in some sceptical observations as to the existence of tigers 
in India anyway. The only satisfaction that we derived from the 
trip was a photograph of ourselves as we appeared on our ele- 
phant, when we returned, with our bloodthirsty firearms, which 
consisted of a double rifle and a cavalry carbine, displayed in full 
view. This was "a present" to us from the Maharajah's photo- 
grapher as a souvenir of our trip, but wo found that presents in 
this country were given with an expectation of more valuable 
ones in return, and our photographs, after all, proved rather 
costly. However, our welcome was cordial, our entertainment 
quite princely, and the trouble taken on our behalf by our Delhi 
friends something extraordinary ; so we perhaps ought not to 
grumble, but we did come away somewhat under the impression 
that tiger hunting in India was a delusion, if not a snare, and 
that the number of the royal beasts in India had been grossly ex- 
aggerated. 

Still, that they exist in considerable numbers is proved by a 
copy of the Government Blue Book, which I came across in Bom- 
bay, in which appears the following passage : 

" One extraordinary feature of Indian life is the number of 



APPENDIX. 345 

human beings destroyed by wild beasts. Rewards are offered by 
the Government for the killing of these animals, but in some dis- 
tricts the loss of life is very great, and in others, where it is less 
excessive, the reason is given that cattle are very abundant, and 
afford more accessible food for carnivorous animals. In 1872-73 
there were 2,334 deaths from snake-bites and wild beasts in the 
Bombay Presidency. The inhabitants of the border between jun- 
gle and cultiv^ition are killed and eaten by tigers in such numbers 
as to require the immediate and serious attention of Government, 
both in India and in England. The following are a few out of 
many instances : A single tigress caused the destruction of 13 
villages, and 250 square miles of country were thrown out of cul- 
tivation. "Wild beasts frequently obstruct Government survey 
parties. In 1869 one tigress killed 127 persons and stopped a 
public road for many weeks. Man-eating tigers are causing a 
great loss of life along the whole range of the Nali-Mali forest. 
One is said to have destroyed more than 100 people. In Lower 
Bengal alone, in a period of six years, 13,401 people were killed 
by wild beasts. The Chief Commissioner of the Central Prov- 
inces, in his report, shows the foliowmg return of human beings 
killed by tigers : 

In 1866-67 373 

In 1867-68 289 

In 1868-69 285 

Total in three years 946 

It appears that there are difficulties in the way of killing down 
these tigers ; first, the superstition of the natives, who regard the 
man-eating tiger as a kind of incarnate and spiteful divinity, whom 
it is dangerous to offend ; secondly, the failures of the Government 
rewards ; thirdly, the desire of a few in India actually to preserve 
tigers as game, to be shot with the rifle as a matter of sport. Mr. 
Frank Buckland suggests an organized destruction of the tiger 
cubs in the breeding season, and the attraction of full-grown tigers 
to traps, pitfalls, and other devices, by means of a drug of vale- 
rian, of which tigers, which are only gigantic cats, are exceedingly 
fond." 



346 COFFEE. 

So, after reading this report, I could not but again believe in 
the existence of tigers in India. 

I had thought to remain in Delhi during the Imperial as- 
semblage, but found that this would make too great an inroad 
upon my time, and I therefore was obliged to forego this spec- 
tacle — another disappointment. 

Proceeding to Bombay by rail, I found it a bustling, business- 
like city, with even more imposing public buildings than those of 
Calcutta. From the Biculla side of the harbor it looks like a 
veritable city of palaces. Bombay is the home of vast numbers 
of the Parsee merchants, whose shrewdness and enterprise have 
made their name known throughout the commercial world. Speak- 
ing of names, they can "lay over" anything that I have seen or 
heard elsewhere, except, perhaps, Ceylon, a specimen of whose 
names I gave in a former letter. But I am not certain that 
Bombay, for irregular, right-angled jaw-breakers, does not even 
talvc the palm from Ceylon. I append herewith a couple of brief 
slips which I cut from one of the Bombay papers while there, and 
I can assure you that these are not exceptional, either in length or 
sonorousness : 

"H. H. Tukhtsingjee, the young Thakore of Bho^vnuggur; 
Kawal Shri Hurrisingjee, a Chief of Seliore, and Mr. Gowreeshun- 
ker Oodeyshunker, one of the Joint Administrators of the State, 
leave Bhownuggur for Bombay, en route to Delhi, on the 5th inst." 

" Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, Bart., C.S.L., with his three sons, 
will leave for Delhi on Thursday next." 

Comment is unnecessary. 

I mentioned that Bombay was a bustling, busy city. It has 
been made so by the railway system of India and the Suez Canal. 
Twenty years ago Bombay was only a port of opium export and 
a way station on the overland route to India. After the mutiny 
the Government system of railroads was undertaken, and during 
our American war Bombay became the entrepot for the cotton 
trade of India, which has grown to be very large. On the com- 
pletion of the Suez Canal many lines of steamers were established 
between Bombay and England, and within the last ten years the 
city has quite outrun Calcutta in the importance of its trade. The 
manufacturing of cotton go'ods for Indian consumption has been 



APPENDIX. 347 

begun on a large scale, twenty or more factories of large capacity 
being now in full operation and strongly competing with Man- 
chester, not only for the trade of Ilindostan, but also for that of 
British Burniah, the Straits Settlements, and China. Indian cot- 
ton manufacturers say that there is a bright future before them, 
and, if this be true, taken in connection with the increased ability 
of American cotton manufacturers to compete with English cotton 
spinners for the rest of the markets of the world, I do not see 
what the latter are going to do. They certainly will have to open 
up Central Africa, and educate the negroes up to the necessity of 
wearing cotton breech-cloths, or the manufacturers of Manchester 
will have to go to the wall. 



FEOM BOMBAY TO EGYPT. 

Tliis part of my trip, for heat and discomfort, had the worst 
reputation of any. Jn China it was hot, but I was told : 
'' Wait till you get to the Red Sea before you begin to com- 
plain." At Singapore and in Java I was told the same thing, 
and, while sweltering in Southern India, with the thermometer at 
upwards of 100° in the shade, I was consoled with the infoi'ma- 
tion that I " would find it much hotter on the Red Sea." So, 
wlien we sailed from Bombay, I got out my thinnest clothing, and 
prepared for a scorcher. From Bombay to Aden, the port of call 
and coaling station for most of the steamers plying between India 
and Europe, it is 1,661 miles, and from Aden to Suez, through 
the Red Sea, 1,308 miles ; making a total of 2,972 miles. Seven 
days on the steamei" Trinacria, of the Anchor Line, with delight- 
ful weather, and scarcely an incident except the occasional passing 
of ships and flights of flying-fish, brought us to Aden. The coast, 
as we approached this place, is the most sterile and forbidding 
that can be imagined ; of volcanic origin, with scarcely a drop of 
rain falling throughout the whole year, not a blade of verdure is 
to be seen, and its successive mountains resemble more than any- 
thing else a series of gigantic ash-heaps. Aden itself has a pretty 



348 COFFEE. 

little harbor, but it is the dreariest place imaginable. Not a tree or 
a shrub is to be seen excepting a few little dwarfs in the yards of 
the Europeans who are compelled to reside here, and these have 
a stunted, sickly look, which tells plainly that their existence is 
not a natural one. The water for the use of the inhabitants of 
the place, and calling ships, is distilled from sea water, and sold at 
the rate of about two cents per gallon. There are traditions that rain 
formerly fell here in sufficient quantities, and ancient reservoirs still 
exist which were constructed for the purpose of holding the iftip- 
ply of water through the dry season. !Now, however, it does not 
rain once in six months, and then only a few drops at a time ; 
and yet, with all these drawbacks, the place has some commerce. 
Considerable quantities of Arabian coffee find their way from Mocha 
and other places along the Arabian and Berberian coasts to this 
point, and minor items, such as dates, figs, ostrich feathers and 
eggs, leopard skins, etc., are also dealt in here in a small way. 

As soon as a steamer casts anchor she is boarded by half a dozen 
or more Arab ostrich feather venders, who, in their demands, are 
as much worse than Chatham Street Jews as the latter are worse 
than respectable dealers. Twenty, thirty, fifty rupees are de- 
manded for a bunch of feathers, which they will sell at eight or 
ten if they cannot get more. It cannot be said that they are 
smart in this, for the asking of absurd prices at once places even 
the most verdant purchaser upon his guard, and leads to offers 
that are as much to the other extreme. Little Berber boys come 
off to the ship in the tiniest and lightest of wooden dug-out 
canoes, and dive for pennies which the passengers throw into the 
water for them, catching them ere they have a chance to sink to 
the bottom ; for five or ten cents in silver they dive clean under 
the ship, coming up on the other side. It is an anmsing thing to 
see three or four of these little chaps plunge from their canoes 
at the same instant after a coin, the nearest of them going down 
almost perpendicularly, with the white soles of their feet — the 
only spots of light color about them — moving like fishes' fins, and 
alone being visible. Those that are a little farther off go down like 
an arrow at an angle of perhaps forty -five degrees, meeting with the 
others at the bottom, and the strongest of them generally coming 
up with the coin. The reluctance with which the smaller ones 



APPENDIX. 349 

competed when tlie larger ones were around led us to think that 
they did not always receive fair play, or, as a youngster on board 
of our ship remarked to his father : " I believe that big fellow 
hammers the little chaps under the water " — another illustration 
of the proverb that " might makes right," and that " Providence 
is on the side which has the heaviest artillery." 

Down, or rather up the Red Sea, about one hundred and 
twenty miles from Aden, in the direction of Suez, is the little 
port of Mocha, which f nrnishes the trade name for most of the 
Arabian coffee, which is held in such high estimation in the mar- 
kets of the world. As before noted, this coffee is now mostly sent 
coastwise to Aden, and reshipped from there upon passing steam- 
ers. Another example of fashion in trade is found here in the fact 
that Europe takes the larger beans, while the American demand 
is .wholly for the smaller ones. So the coffee is carefully picked 
over, and only the small, uniform-sized beans, put up in a peculiar 
style, known to the trade as one-eighth, one-fourth, and one-half 
bales, are sent to the United States. This coffee by itself has a pe- 
culiarly sharp, almost acrid flavor, and when drunk alone will suit 
very few palates, it being much better when mixed with three 
parts of Java, or other mild coffee, to one of Mocha. I had 
always thought that the far-famed Turkish coffee was made exclu- 
sively from the Arabian berry ; but, to my surprise, I found, when 
in Constantinople, this to be quite the reverse of true, most of 
the coffee used there coming from India and Ceylon. 

But I am getting ahead of my story. Six days up the Red 
Sea brought us to Suez and the eastern entrance of the great canal 
of that name — the greatest commercial, if not the greatest engi- 
neering undertaking of modern times — an undertaking which has 
shortened the distance to India and points in the East from four 
to five thousand miles, and in six years has more than doubled 
the commercial steam fleet to Europe. I had no idea whatever of 
the magnitude of this trade until, in passing through the Red 
Sea, we met steamers almost hourly, sometimes three or four 
being in sight at the same time, and in looking over a copy of the 
London Thnes I found announcements of seventeen different lines 
of steamers passing through the Suez Canal to India and the East, 
some of these lines having weekly departures, and representing 



350 COFFEE. 

many millions of dollars capital. "While most persons are, 
doubtless, familiar with the main facts in connection with this 
great work, a review of history is sometimes interesting, and I 
will give a few facts and figures in relation to it. 

To Monsieur de Lesseps, the world is indebted both for the con- 
ception and execution of this work. Appointed French Consul in 
Egypt in 1831, after some years' residence in that country, M. de 
Lesseps became possessed with the idea of cutting a canal from 
the Mediterranean across the desert to the Red Sea, a distance of 
some eighty nautical, or about one hundred English miles. It 
was not till 1854, however, that the co-operation of the Egyptian 
Government was secured, and in November of that year the final 
concession was granted to M. de Lesseps. A company was formed, 
and a subscription to the stock opened in November, 1858. A 
large share of the subscriptions was reserved for English capital- 
ists, but England stood aloof, and took no interest in the enter- 
prise, although, if a success, the greatest benefit must inure to her. 
Twenty-five thousand French subscribers at once came forward, 
and these, with the aid of the Egyptian Government, insured the 
construction of the canal. The estimated cost of construction was 
atfirst twenty millions of dollars. The difiiculties in the way gradu- 
ally increased, until the estimated cost became forty millions of 
dollars, and, before the opening, the expenditure was seventj^-five 
millions, and at this date has exceeded eighty millions, or 
about four times the original estimate, notwithstanding that the 
country through which the canal is constructed is peculiarly favor- 
able for such a work, there being little or no rock-cutting, and the 
sand-hills in no place being more than forty feet high ; while for 
about half the distance shallow lakes or lagoons could be utilized 
by merely dredging. An idea of the magnitude of the work, 
however, can be formed from the fact that, although prosecuted 
with the greatest energy, it took ten years to accomplish it. 
Besides the actual work on the canal, there was the commence- 
ment indispensable for the workmen ; sheds and buildings for 
an army of men were necessary, and a supply of fresh water 
in the desert. To insure the latter, water was first carried from 
Zagazig through fifty miles of wilderness in skins on the backs 
of three thousand camels and donkeys, while two years later 



APPENDIX. 351 

one thousand two hundred Egyptians opened a canal from Lake 
Maxima, which brought the waters of the Nile to Ismailia. 
During low water, however, in this river the supply failed, and 
finally, in 1864, the Viceroy of Egypt threw no fewer than 
eighty thousand men into the deepening and extension of the 
fresh water canal, so as to secure a supply at all stages of the 
Nile. At the cutting of the canal at El Guisar in 1862 and 1863, 
there were eighteen thousand laborers employed. For these tene- 
ments had to be erected, and a saw-mill was kept in constant 
operation. At one time there were thirteen thousand eight hun- 
dred barrows on the ground. At lake Timsah, one of the shallow 
bodies of water which were utilized in the construction of the 
canal, and on the banks of which the company's capital (Ismailia) 
now stands, there were two hundred and eighty-five dredging 
machines at work with a force equal to eighteen thousand horses, 
and consuming twelve thousand tons of coal per month. Port 
Said, the Mediterranean entrance to the canal is a creation of 
this work. In 1859, when the first spadeful of sand was turned 
for the canal, it did not exist; in 1861 it had tv/o thousand in- 
habitants ; in 1872, eight thousand six hundred, of whom four 
thousand two hundred were foreigners. A commodious harbor 
and basin for the accommodation of shipping has been created. 
Thirty-five miles of the canal are subject to sand-drifting, and 
sand barriers are erected somewhat similar to the snow fences 
along the line of our Pacific Railroad. The town of Suez, the Red 
Sea terminus of the canal, contains about thirteen thousand in- 
habitants, ten thousand of whom are Egyptians, Turks, and Arabs, 
and the balance principally Europeans. Extensive accommoda- 
tion has also been here provided for shipping, and Suez is almost as 
much a creation of the canal as Port Said. The cost of the con- 
struction and maintenance of the canal has been so great that as 
yet it has not paid interest upon its cost ; but the traffic through 
it is increasing so rapidly, that hopes are entertained ot" its soon 
doing so. Its importance to the world, however, is so great that 
no fears need ever be entertained that it will not be maintained 
in an efficient condition. 

As an evidence of the great increase in its use, the following 
tables, showing the number of vessels and tonnage passing 



352 



COFFEE. 



through the canal during the years from 1870 to and including 
1879, will prove interesting: 



Year. 


Number of 
vessels. 


Tons 


Ybab. 


Number of 

vessels. 


Tons. 


1870 . . . 


486 

765 

1,083 

1,173 

1,364 


435,911 

761,467 

1,4.39,169 

2,085,072 
2,433,673 


1875 


1.494 

1.457 
1,663 
1,593 

1,477 


3,940,708 


1871 


1876 


3,073,107 


1872 


1877* 

1878 


3,418,949 


1873 


3,291,535 


1874... 


1879 


3,336,943 







Navigation, hy iiags, through the Suez Canal for the year ending 
December 31, 1877. 



Flag. 


Number of 

vessels. 


Tons. 


Flag. 


Number of 

vessels. 


Tons. 


British 

French 

Dutch 

Austrian 

Italian 

German 

Spanish 

Danish 

Norwegian .... 


1,291 
85 
63 
46 
58 
41 
31 
5 
13 


1,760,785 
152,793 
88,198 
71.103 
60,661 
40,501 
34,131 
15,738 
13,577 


Egyptian 

American .... 
Portuguese. . . 

Belgian 

Swedish 

Brazilian 

Turkish 

Total 


7 
3 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 


4,934 
2,153 
1.908 
1,763 
1,696 
555 
71 


1,641 


3,350,554 



By this it will be seen that about 78 per cent., both in the num- 
ber of ships and tonnage, are English, while the United States come 
in with a beggarly 3, against a total number of 1,641 vessels, and a 
tonnage of 2,152, against 2,250,554. The canal has become a ne- 
cessity to great Britain, and a convenience to the whole world. 
Tliat the English Government appreciates this is evident from the 
fact that during 1875 it purchased from the Khedive of Egypt 
176,602 of his shares for $20,000,000. It is supposed that this 
was done in order that in any future opening up of the Eastern 
question, England might have a commercial claim to the great 
highway to India. M. de Lesseps, in a circular issued by him to 
tlie company after the purchase, while commenting somewhat bit- 
terly on the opposition offered by Great Britain, as a nation, to 

* The figures for the last three years have been supplied to bring the state- 
ment up to recent date. 



APPENDIX. 353 

the project at its commencement, says: "I therefore regard as a 
fortunate occurrence this powerful union which is about to be 
established between French and EnglisTi capital for the purely in- 
dustrial and necessarily pacific working of the great maritime 
canal." 

As an indication of the importance of the canal to the tea trade, 
I may state that, in 1870, 711,000 pounds of tea passed through it 
for England ; in 1871, 4,010,000 pounds ; in 1872, 22,912,000 
pounds ; and now nearly the wdiole crop of both China and India 
tea destined for consumption in Europe, and a considerable por- 
tion of that used in the United States, passes through the canal. 

If these statistics prove anything, they prove that an interna- 
tional ship canal through the Isthmus of Darien, connecting the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, must prove to be of the greatest pos- 
sible benefit to the whole world, and also that the principal mari- 
time nations of the earth would find it most profitable to their 
commercial interests to co-operate in the construction of such a 
work. Such a work would be too magnificent in its proportions 
to be undertaken by private enterprise, and it is doubtful if suffi- 
cient private capital could be mobilized to accomplish it ; but by a 
co-operation of nations it would become a question of a few years, 
and, under a joint national ownership, it would be an important step 
in the march of progress, which will, in the near future, give us a 
universal system of weights and measures, and ultimately a uni- 
versal language. These anticipations may be looked upon by some 
as the visions of an enthusiast, but the statesmen of the world are 
already looking forward to some of them as likely to be accom- 
plished in the near future, and the construction of the Darien 
ship canal would be as important a step toward this commercial 
millennium as the arbitration between England and the United 
States for the settlement of the Alabama claims was toward the 
millennium outlined by Tennyson — 

" Till the war -drum throbb'd no longer 
And the battle-flags were furl'd 
In the Parliament of man, 
The Federation of the world." 

23 



354 COFFEE. 



EGYPT AKD TURKEY. 

Many travellers from India to Europe stop at Suez and make 
a short tour in Egypt for the purpose of seeing the Pyramids and 
other interesting antiquities of that wonderful country. This 
also our party did, and we were well repaid for our trouble. 
Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is situated about midway between 
Suez on the Red Sea and Alexandria on the Mediterranean ; with 
both of Mdiich places there is rail comnnmication. To reach 
Cairo from Suez, we pass through some fifty miles of sandy des- 
ert to Zagazig, which is situated on one of the branches of the 
Nile, which form the delta of that wonderful river ; and from 
this place to Cairo it was one continuous garden, with a succession 
of rice, cotton, and sugar-cane fields, together with a variety of 
grains, and dotted here and there with beautiful orange groves. 
Just below Cairo the Nile spreads out like a fan, distributing its 
waters through numerous mouths into the Mediterranean at dis- 
tances the extremes of which are one hundred and fifty miles 
apart. The whole space between these channels is annually over- 
flowed, receiving a thin but fertile deposit of soil, which is brought 
down from the mountains of Africa by the overflowing waters ; and 
immediately upon their subsiding there springs up a luxuriance of 
verdure which is probably equalled in no other country on the 
face of the globe. 

Cairo is not only the seat of government, but also the empo- 
rium for the entire trade of the Upper Nile, which is of no mean 
dimensions. In her bazaars, are found the ivory, and ostrich 
plumes and eggs of Africa, the tapestries, carpets, and gems of Per- 
sia, quaint and curious antique arms and armors from Arabia, and 
a full assortment of European fabrics of every nature. A de- 
pendency of Turkey and under Turkish rule, it is Oriental in its 
prominent features, but there is also a blending of the ancient 
Egyptian and modern European which makes a rare and indeed 
unique type of civilization. One of the features which strike a 
stranger forcibly upon arriving here is that locomotion is largely 
performed upon donkeys. Diminutive creatures that a person 
would hardly think could carry the weight of a child may be seen 



APPENDIX. ODD 

trotting through tlie streets bearing a six-foot specimen of hu- 
manity, who to alight has only to put his legs down their full 
length and the donkey trots out from under him. Their braying 
resounds through the city at all hours of the day and night, and 
is about as musical as the filing of a saw-mill saw, and not very 
unlike it, although a friend of mine remarked when I made the 
comparison, that he thought it was an insult to the saw. 

I had serious misgivings about bestriding one of these diminu- 
tive specimens of the animal kingdom, but in justice to the don- 
key species I must say that 1 never travelled more expeditiously 
and comfortably for the money. You extend your right foot over 
the little beast and draw up your legs, putting your feet into 
a pair of miniature stirrups ; a driver (each donkey has its 
driver) trots after him on foot, and by dint of switching and 
punching keeps him up to the requisite degree of speed. One 
of these little animals will get over an astonishing amount of 
ground in a day, and, barring an occasional tendency to rub 
your legs against a wall or a passing camel, or to stumble and 
pitch you into a mud-puddle, this is by no means a bad method 
of locomotion. Indeed, it is far better and easier than riding 
upon either camels or elephants, which ai'e much more pretentious 
members of the animal kingdom, and whose performances in this 
line have occasionally been greatly lauded. In Cairo, a common 
name for donkeys is " Bismarck," and upon inquiring the origin 
of this singular name, I found that during the Franco-Prussian 
war the many French residents of Cairo revenged themselves 
upon the German statesman by ordering a " Bismarck " whenever 
a donkey was required, and the Arab drivers, believing that this 
was a French name for the animal, finally came to adopt it as a 
common name. Whenever they saw a foreigner wanting a don- 
key they would greet him with the inquiry, " "Want a Bismarck, 
master ? ^M-marck ? " Some German officers, however, who were 
on a visit to the Pyramids about a year ago, thrashed some of the 
drivers, and since that time it is said that many of them have 
studied the law of nations, and now have an idea of the meaning 
of the word, and are cautious how they use it — particularly with 
persons having a German type of countenance. 

Of course we went to see the Pyramids, for every one who 



356 COFFEE. 

visits Egypt does that. Before I came here I never knew that 
there were more than three, but standing on the summit of the 
Pyramid of Cheops one can count a dozen or more, many of them 
of large size. Indeed, according to the best authorities, most of 
the principal rulers of ancient Egypt built a Pyramid to com- 
memorate his reign, and receive his remains. The three Pyra- 
mids of Ghizeh, however, are the largest and most celebrated. 
They are situated in the desert, just on the border of the fertile 
lowlands of the Kile, some eight or ten miles from Cairo ; the 
Pyramid of Cheops is the largest of the three ; it is 445 feet high 
(formerly 479), and 767 feet square at tlie base, each of the four 
angles corresponding to the four points of the compass. They 
are composed of blocks of rather soft, somewhat chalky limestone, 
upon an average, perhaps, five or six feet long and three to four 
feet square ; these are arranged in layers, each layer set back 
from the face of the one below it some three feet, and thus re- 
treating, if I may use the phrase, in regular progression untU 
they finally reach a point at the top — a solid, pyramidal mass of 
stone, containing so many tons that it almost defies arithmetical 
calculation to compute them ; a mass so durable that they have 
stood here, according to the best authorities, some four thousand 
years, looking down upon the rise and fall of dynasties and em- 
pires, and indeed, witnessing the total wiping out of one of the 
greatest nations that ever existed, so thoroughly that its civiliza- 
tion and characteristics are still shrouded in mystery, and in many 
cases exist only in the conjectures of the learned men of the pres- 
ent day. 

The point or apex is some twenty-five feet square, although 
the magnitude of the structure is such that, looking at it from the 
bottom, it appears to run up to a point, which chroniclers say it 
formerly did. Standing upon the summit, one gazes off upon the 
sand-hills of the desert on the one side, and the fertile valley of 
the Nile on the other, covered in January with a beautiful velvety 
green sward, across which, at a distance of ten miles, gleam the 
white walls of the mosques and minarets of Cairo. Here Napo- 
leon Bonaparte addressed his troops on the eve of the battle of 
the Pyramids, telling them that forty centuries looked down upon 
their deeds that day, and from the summit he watched the tide 



APPENDIX. 357 

of battle ebb and flow, which resulted in the defeat of the hith- 
erto invincible Mamelukes. This little spot upon the summit of 
the Pyramid of Cheops has been trodden for centuries by the stu- 
dents and scientists of all nations. Every stone upon it is carved 
with the names of persons more or less known to the world, and 
probably no single spot on the face of the globe — not even the 
Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem — has been visited, viewed, and 
studied with greater interest. Near the Pyramids of Ghizeh 
stands the Sphynx, one of the nine wonders of the world, and in 
Cairo the Government museum of sculptures, mummies, and other 
remains from the tombs of the ancient Egyptians, furnishes ma- 
terial for a most intei-esting study. The ruins of the Upper 
Nile, for which Cairo is the starting-point, are also most interest- 
ing, but I was obliged to content myself with a study of these 
from a distance. 

From Cairo we proceeded to Alexandria, the chief seaport of 
Egypt, over a railroad built by George Stephenson, the rails of 
which are laid on iron sleepers, and wliich is said to be the smooth- 
est running road in the world. The historical associations of 
Alexandria are most interesting to the tourist, but he looks in 
vain for the evidences of antiquity with which its history has 
filled his memory. Here the first light-house was constructed to 
guide mariners to a safe harbor— the " Pharos," and the fame of 
" Pharos light " has been handed down to all succeeding ages. 
The Alexandria of to-day is a bustling, modern city, with scarcely 
anything, excepting Pompey's Pillar and an Egyptian obelisk 
known as " Cleopatra's Needle," to testify to its greatness in by- 
gone ages. As an evidence of an extensive business, however, I 
may mention that I counted twenty-six steamers lying at its 
wharves, most of which were busily engaged in taking in or dis- 
charging cargo, and there was besides to be seen a not insignifi- 
cant fleet of sailing vessels. 

From Alexandria we sailed for Constantinople by the way of 
Smyrna. The latter is the chief commercial city of Turkey in 
Asia, a curious old town with narrow, dirty streets, teeming with 
the smells that seem inseparable from Turkish cities. The streets 
are very narrow and are paved with large stone blocks which are 
terribly mieven, and make them almost impassable for carriages. 



358 COFFEE. 

Almost everything is transported on the backs of donkeys and 
camels, which may be seen lumbering through the streets with 
huge panniers or pack-saddles swung on each side of them and 
filled with almost every conceivable kind of merchandise. It is a 
curious and not uninteresting sight for a stranger to see a long 
train of camels joined together with a rope leading from the nose 
of one to the saddle of the other, marching in single file through 
the narrow streets of Smyrna to the wharves, where one by one 
they are forced to kneel do%vn and receive their burdens, with 
which they again start off under way to the desert. It is, indeed, 
a veritable meeting of the " ships of the desert," with the " white- 
v^inged birds of commerce." The chief exports of Smyrna are 
figs, cotton, and carpets, it being the place of manufacture for the 
celebrated Turkish carpets, which are, indeed, most beautiful and 
luxurious, and the carpet bazaars of Smyrna are a most seductive 
place to visit. In Smyrna the Turkish coffee-houses, which are 
so prominent a feature in Constantinople, are also largely patron- 
ized. All along the water front they are as thick as are drinking- 
saloons in West street, New York, and they seem to be filled at 
all hours with a motley crowd composed chiefly of Tm-ks and 
Greeks^ who are busily engaged in sipping their coffee and taking 
whiffs from the long, flexible stem of the 7iarghileh, or Turkish 
pipe. Here our steamer took on board a thousand recruits for 
the Turkish army, Bashi-Bazouks, or irregular troops bound 
for Constantinople. They were mostly between tw^enty-five and 
thirty-five j-ears of age ; stout, athletic fellows, and generally 
quiet and good-natured ; very different in appearance from what 
one might imagine the demons in human form who perpe- 
trated the massacres in Bulgaria. Still it is difficult to say what 
these fellows might do when their blood was up, fighting under 
the inspiration of a religion which teaches that the most meri- 
torious act a son of the Prophet can do is to kill " a dog of a 
Christian." Most of them were very devout in the observance 
of their religion; they were "told off" in squads to go forward 
and pray, and the forecastle deck, the only clear space on board 
was constantly occupied by half a dozen at a time, kneeling and 
mumbling their prayers, and making their genuflections or sa- 
laams toward Mecca. I fancied that in this devotion to their 



APPENDIX. 359 

religion I found the reason for the acknowledged bravery of the 
Turks in connection with the Koran teaching that every one of 
the faithful who falls in battle is translated at once to Paradise, 
where he has any number of beautiful "houris" at disposal to 
wait upon him and gratify every passion. Is it any wonder that 
these men fight like demons for the defence or spread of their re- 
ligion ? In my opinion, it is by no means certain that Kussia 
would get the best of a contest with Turkey at this time, at least 
until Turkey's resources had become exhausted, and hunger and 
disease had become Russian allies. 

It is said, however, that the Turks have never expected to 
permanently remain in Europe, that they have always believed 
they would sooner or later be expelled, and for many years 
the Turks of Constantinople have buried most of their dead on the 
Asiatic side of the Bosphorus on that account, 

Constantinople itself has the most beautiful situation that can 
be imagined either for commerce or residence, occupying the 
sloping sides of the Bosphorus — a salt water river, so to speak, 
connecting the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora ; it is fairly 
divided into two parts by the " Golden Horn," an inlet or bay 
which sweeps up between Pera and Constantinople proper, Pera 
being the residence of most of the foreign population and occu- 
pying about the same relation to Constantinople that Brooklyn 
does to Kew York. 

Approaching the city from the Sea of Marmora, it presents a 
most beautiful appearance, its great mosques occupying the prin- 
cipal points of vantage, with their graceful minarets towering 
high in the air. Little steamers are darting here and there on 
their way to Scutari (the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus), or the 
various little villages along its shores ; the light and graceful " ca- 
iques " (a species of row-boat) are plying hither and thither, and 
altogether, the scene is one long to be remembered. A walk 
through the city, however, dispels the illusion. The streets are 
narrow, crooked, and dirty, in many places fairly paved with 
mongrel dogs, which belong to nobody, and lie around under the 
feet of passers-by with the utmost unconcern, while in almost every 
quarter one is greeted with odors which are anything but pleas- 
ant. The Turkish and Circassian women that one sees, as a ride, 



360 COFFEE. 

are not pretty, and their costumes are ungraceful and enhance 
their natiu-al ugliness. One looks in vain for the famed Circas- 
sian beauties, and Turkish society, so far as it is visible to the casual 
visitor to Constantinople, leaves anything but a favorable impres- 
sion. The Turks, as a nation, are licentious, fanatical, cruel, and 
ignorant, and in my estimation, compare very unfavorably with 
any other nation pretending to civilization. How ignorant they 
are, may be inferred from an article in their new Constitution, 
recently promulgated, which, in providing for a legislative body, 
or House of Congress, specifies that in order to be eligible to 
membership, a Turk " must be able to read, and for a re-election 
must be able to read, and so far as possible, to write." 



GEEECE AND HER CUEEANT CEOP. 

From Constantinople I went to Greece, with the double pur- 
pose of seeing the interesting antiquities of that country and in- 
vestigating some matters connected with the trade in currants. I 
cannot say that the Isles of Greece, as they appear to the modern 
eye, fulfil the high expectations which one is apt to form from all 
that has been written about them in song and story ; nor do the 
modern Greeks look very much as if they had descended from the 
heroes of Thermopylae or those who fought with Marco Bozzaris. 
It is said, however, that the depressed condition of Greece to-day 
is due largely to the misrule of Turkey and the terrible struggles 
which the Greeks have had with that cruel and barbarous nation 
in the effort to obtain their independence. I was informed by an 
intelligent Greek gentleman that since the beginning of this cen- 
tury more than half a million of Greeks, the flower of Grecian 
manhood, had fallen in these struggles, besides large numbers of 
non-combatants who had been put to the sword by their cruel and 
barbarous opponents, who for many years crushed the Greeks by 
mere force of numbers, and perpetrated, when victorious, barbari- 
ties similar to those which have been recently enacted in Bulgaria, 
which have excited the indignation of the ci^'ilized world. More 



APPENDIX. 361 

tlian half o£ Greek territory proper is still under Turkish nile, 
and its inhabitants, in common with the other Christians who 
constitute a majority of all the inhabitants of Turkey in Europe, 
barely succeed in existing under a government which, for oppres- 
sion in taxation, and general tyranny, is not equalled elsewhere on 
the face of the globe. 

Whatever the Greek islands may be in summer time, in win- 
ter they present a rocky, barren, unproductive appearance that is 
anything but pleasing. I looked in vain for the " eternal sum- 
mer " which, according to Byron, " gilds them yet," and longed 
for access to a good-sized wood-pile or a well-tilled coal-box to keep 
the temperature of my room up to a point where it would be 
comfortable. It seems, however, that these things are almost un- 
known in this country, and the people shiver through the cold 
weather, devoutly praying for the early return of that which is 
warm enough to make them comfortable. The only tree which 
grows in Greece to any considerable extent is the olive-tree, and 
the commercial product of this is too valuable to admit of its 
being freely used for firewood, while there is no native coal, and 
the people have very little money to buy that which is imported 
from other countries. 

Athens is, of course, the most interesting place to visit, owing 
to its associations with the past. Indeed, it subsists principally 
upon these, for the surrounding country produces little that is ex- 
portable, and it has little or no commerce. It is said, however, 
to be gradually gaining in population ; the modern part of the city 
is certainly well built and cleaner than any Eastern city I have 
visited. The great interest of the place centres in the Acropolis, 
with its noble old ruins, the sight of which must inevitably stimu- 
late the appetite of the tourist for ancient history. Here one 
obtains a glimpse of the art which later, under the Romans, made 
Italy famous, and which makes her the most attractive field for 
the tourist, to this day. 

The currant crop of Greece, the chief item of export, is raised 
in its westernmost islands and along the shores of the Gulf 
of Lepanto. Zante was formerly the most important depot for 
the export of this fruit, but of late years Patras has gradually 
been gaining in its exports, and is now the centre of this trade, 



362 COFFEE. 

M'itliout wliich Greece would scarcely have any commerce worth 
mentioning. England is the great market for currants, and Eng- 
lish plum-puddings are the ultimate destination of by far the 
greater quantity. The story is told of a Greek lady who, in con- 
versation with Sir Charles Kapier, spoke of the English appetite 
for plum-pudding, and remarked : " We pray heaven your coun- 
trymen may never lose this taste, for in that event we should all 
starve." It is curious that the prosperity of any country should 
depend upon the production of such an unimportant item in the 
world's economy. 

The Greek currant is really a species of grape, and a currant 
vineyard looks like any other vineyard, except that the vines are, 
perhaps, not quite so large, and are set and trimmed a little 
closer than in an ordinary vineyard. They are propagated from 
cuttings, which take from two to three years before beginning to 
bear, and it is five or six years from the time of planting before 
a vineyard arrives at full bearing, after which it lasts many years. 
The vines are set in rows four or five feet apart, and about the 
same distance from each other in the rows ; while young they are 
supported by sticks driven into the ground, and are trimmed and 
trained on trellises, so as not to grow much above an even 
height, A curious feature of currant culture is that the vines are 
girdled each year, being cut entirely around and completely 
through the bark, at a distance of perhaps one foot from the 
ground. Such treatment would kill an ordinary plant, and, when 
this practice was begun, it was prophesied that it would have that 
effect in course of time ; a result that, however, has not been ex- 
perienced in pi-actice. The object to be attained is to increase the 
size and quality of the fruit, whicli is undoubtedly accomplished. 
The theory, as explained to me, is that the sap rises through the 
centre of the woody stalk until it readies the branches, leaves, and 
fruit, when it returns by the bark or the woody fibre nearest tlie 
bark. In its descending course, upon reaching the spot where the 
plant is girdled, its progress is stopped, and it is obliged to reascend 
and exhaust itself in the fruit. It is said that not only is the size 
of the fruit improved by this practice, but the amount of saccharine 
matter is also largely increased, which is considered a desidera- 
tum. The quality of the soil, however, has much to do with this, 



APPENDIX. 363 

and different districts varj considerably in this respect. August 
and September are the months for gathering and curing. The 
bunches are picked and spread out to dry on little terraces of 
smoothly compacted earth, sloping toward the west, so as to get 
the full effect of the afternoon sun. They remain here six or 
eight days, according to the weather, wlien they become much 
dried and shrivelled ; they are then stripped from the stems, and 
after a further exposure of two or three days, are sufficiently dried 
to be packed. They are then put into bags and transported to the 
nearest shipping point, where they are generally sold to the ex- 
port merchants, and thrown into large piles in their warehouses, 
from which they are from time to time packed in barrels and 
shipped as. required. Grocers who have seen how closely currants 
are packed in the barrel might think that it had been done by 
hydraulic pressure. In point of fact, however, it is done by 
men's feet. A man gets into an empty barrel, while another 
shovels in the currants, the first distributing them and treading 
them with his bare feet, pressing them and working them in very 
compactly, and gradually rising until the barrel is full. This cer- 
tainly does not seem the cleanliest method in the world, but during 
lYLj travels I have seen dirty operatives wading in the syrup fj'om 
which the sugar is made. Chinamen treading tea into the chests 
with their feet, currants packed into barrels by the feet, and 
macaroni-dough kneaded with the feet ; and I have finally been 
forced to accept the idea that the man who said " we were bound 
to eat our peck of dirt anyway " had a deep insight not only into 
human nature, but also into the various processes by which the food 
is prepared with which the human body is sustained and nour- 
ished. For myself, I prefer processes of manufacture which are 
less suggestive than those which I have mentioned, and so far as 
my influence in the trade extends, it will always be thrown in 
favor of cleanliness in the preparation of food products. 

Of course the above-described methods of curing and pre- 
paring currants also leave a wide scope for care and cleanliness. 
Being dried on the ground, more or less stone and gritty matter 
is apt to become incorporated with the currants, varying, of 
course, with the nature of the drying-ground and the care exer- 
cised in their manipulation. This has a considerable influence 



364 COFFEE. 

upon the price, especially in the English market, where these 
matters are understood and appreciated better than in America. 
Indeed, until within the last two or three years, anything has been 
considered good enough to ship to America, and the orders which 
came from the United States for currants always contained limits 
as to price, but none whatever as to quality ; of course, this re- 
sulted in all the poor goods going to the American market. Of 
late, however, the trade in the United States has been getting into 
other hands, wholesale grocers and distributing fruit merchants 
importing direct, where before a few speculative importing houses, 
which knew or cared little about the wants of the retail trade, con- 
trolled the entire business, and a much better and cleaner quality 
is now required for the American market than heretofore. We 
have yet, however, something to learn in regard to i\ie flavor of 
the fruit. Some districts are greatly to be preferred in this re- 
spect. Their product contains a much larger percentage of sac- 
charine matter, and the London houses, which have a first-class 
trade, will sometimes pay nearly double the price for favorite 
brands that they will for the ordinary run of goods. 

The following statistics of the production of currants, together 
with the ruling prices, are interesting, as showing the course of 
trade : 

In 1851 and previous years the production was large, and the 
average first-cost price about $25 per 1,000 pounds. 

In 1852 a severe blight suddenly affected a portion of the cur- 
rant district, the production fell to 13,584 tons, and the price rose 
to $62 per 1,000 pounds. 

In 1853 the blight extended still further, affecting nearly the 
whole currant-producing territory ; but 4,998 tons were produced, 
and prices ranged between $5Y and $93 per 1,000 pounds, the 
lowest price being for the poorest quality. 

In 1854 the production was 6,121 tons, and the range of prices 
$45 to $65. 

In 1855 the production was 7,128 tons, and the range of 
prices $110 to $120, a great speculation having been inaugur- 
ated that year, which continued through the two subsequent 
years. 

In 1856, having to a certain extent recovered from the blight, 



APPENDIX. 365 

the production increased to 26,906 tons, but prices still kept up 
to from $70 to $85. 

In 1857 the production was 23,327 tons, and the range of 
prices $70 to $100. 

In 1858 the production had increased to 34,035 tons, which 
proved too heavj a load for the speculators to carry, and prices 
suddenly broke down to a range of $22 to $38 per 1,000 pounds. 

Production. 

Tons. Prices. 

1859 ii7,5;J5 $27 00 to |55 00 

1860 51,498 23 00" 35 00 

1801 43,365 20 00 " 50 00 

1863 49,337 20 00" 32 00 

1863 '. 57,830 2100" 33 00 

1864 51,505 20 00" 30 03 

1865 51,440 22 00" 40 00 

1866 58,367 20 00" 43 00 

1867 65,146 16 00 " 46 00 

1868 56,323 13 00" 38 00 

For the last eight years the prices have ranged between $25 
and $50 per 1,000 pounds, and the production has been as fol- 
lows: In 1869,52,267 tons; 1870, 54,875 tons; 1871, 80,976 
tons; 1872, 70,766 tons; 1873,71,222 tons; 1874, 76,210 tons; 
1875, 72,916 tons; 1876, 86,947 tons; 1877, 82,181 tons, being 
the largest crop ever known. 

By these figures it will be seen that the fluctuations both in 
quantity and prices have been remarkable, and it is hard to draw 
any reliable conclusions from them. 

The following figures of the shipments to the United States for 
the last ten years are also interesting, as showing the large increase 
in the consumption of this article : For the five years beginning 
with 1865, when our import duty was five cents per pound, the 
quantities are as follows: 1865, 1,411 tons; 1866, 2,637 tons; 
1867, 2,182 tons; 1868, 2,808 tons; 1869, 1,143 tons. During 
1870 and 1871 our duty was two and a half cents per pound, 
and the quantities as follows: 1870, 3,356 tons; 1871, 5,020 tons, 
a considerable portion of the shipments of that year being in 
anticipation of the reduction of duty to one cent per pound, 
which took place in 1872, in which year the importations were 



366 COFFEE. 

4,458 tons; 1873, 6,280 tons; 1874, 6,129 tons; 1875, 8,857 tons. 
During the season of 1876, 7,353 tons ; 1877, 5,912 tons. 

The above are direct shipments, and do not include the con- 
siderable quantities which were first shipped from Greece to 
Trieste, and also to England, and from these points transshipped 
to the United States. These figures, however, show a steady and 
large increase under the stimulus of reduced duties, the year 1869 
alone being an exception, due, no doubt, to the prices being very 
high, as also they were in 1872. 



ITALY. 

WAYSIDE SCENES, THOIJGHTS, AISTD FANCIES IN ITALY. 

From Corfu, in Greece, I crossed the Adriatic to Brindisi, 
in Italy, an important port in the time of the Roman Empire, 
but since the decline of Roman power a comparatively unimpor- 
tant place until the completion of the Suez Canal, since which 
time it has been the Mediterranean port of call for many English 
steamers to the East, and possessing the best harbor on the East 
coast of the Italian peninsula, it bids fair, in course of time, to 
again become a place of some importance. The old Roman cita- 
del is still in existence here, in a fair state of preservation, and 
Roman architectural remains are abundant. Indeed, all along 
the coast the walls of fortifications and other buildings are abun- 
dant, and from the windows of the railway cars one occasionally 
catches a glimpse of a broken marble column, or other piece of 
ancient sculpture, built into the modern Italian walls. 

Corfu, too, by the way, in the island of that name (one of the 
westernmost of the Greek Archipelago), deserves a word of de- 
scription — a picturesque old town, with a harbor commanded by 
two citadels, built by the Venetians in their palmy days, when 
the whole East was tributary to Venice. A pleasant surround- 
ing country, with orange and ancient olive-trees, and a charm- 
ing climate, makes Corfu, in many respects, a very desirable 



APPENDIX. 367 

place of residence, and in the winter it is quite a place of re- 
sort for tourists who desire to escape the rigors of a Northern 
winter. The olive-trees, by the way, remind me that I here met 
a combination of amazing stupidity in the person of one of the 
local guides. He was a pleasant amiable fellow, with the usual 
parrot-like lore which distinguishes many of his fraternity. An 
affirmative, or what a lawyer would call a leading question to 
these professional guides is sure to be met with a confirmative 
answer, and when this is mixed up with the information which 
they have acquired and make a business of relating to every new 
comer, with, perhaps, no idea whatever of its bearing, it becomes 
particularly entertaining. As an instance, our guide informed 
us that the old olive trees which we saw were there " since the 
time of the Yenetians," from which everything in this old place 
seems to date. I asked him how long ago that was, which puz- 
zled him very much, and he finally gave it up. I quizzingly 
suggested fifteen or eighteen years, and he returned an eager 
" yes," which showed how limited was his knowledge, and how 
eager he was to please. Thinking, perhaps, that he had not un- 
derstood me, I put the question again in various forms, until I 
became fully satisfied that the fellow had no comprehension 
whatever of time. 

In the older parts of the town of Corfu one can get a good 
idea of the domestic economy and methods of the primitive 
Greeks. All of the utensils are of the most antiquated pattern; 
wine and olive oil is carried about in goatskins similar to the 
water skins which I described in one of my letters from India. 
Down at the wharves, where I saw oil being poured into hogs- 
heads for exportation, instead of lightering these casks off to the 
ships, which lie at anchor some distance from the shore, they 
simply roll them overboard and tow them off with a row-boat, oil 
being lighter than water. Olives and olive oil seem to be a chief 
article of commerce throughout this whole country. All the way 
up the eastern side of the Italian peninsula, for hundreds of miles, 
olive-groves are thickly planted, and their gnarled and twisted 
trunks give evidence of great age. Indeed, I think the olive-trees 
of Eastern Italy can take the palm for growing in the most fan- 
tastic forms and shapes. It is a common thing to see one side de- 



368 COFFEE. 

cayed so that it is more like a slab than a tree, and this thin, shriv- 
elled, one-sided thing is filled with knots or rather knot-holes, so 
that it looks like a piece of perforated paper on a large scale, yet 
the tops seem to flourish and bear good crops. In one instance I 
saw where a tree had positively grown itself inside out ; that is, 
had warped and twisted a large portion of the trunk so that what 
was originally the inside of the tree was now upon the outside, 
while the bark had exchanged places and was growing on the 
concave surface, with only a narrow slit to admit the light and air, 
and in numbers of instances the trees had grown themselves out of 
their original centre of gravity, taken a new start at right angles, 
wasted away until the substance of the wood in the trunk would 
no longer support the branches, and stone columns had been built 
to support them at the point where the large limbs began to 
branch off. 

Many travellers from India to Europe disembark at Brindisi 
and make a short Italian tour, completing the rest of their journey 
by rail, and do a little sight-seeing in Italy. The railway along 
the eastern coast leads directly up to Yenice, which, aside from 
Kome, is probably the most interesting and most frequented city of 
Italy. Founded soon after the fall of the Roman empire upon 
a number of small islands in a lagoon at the head of the Adriatic, 
it gradually prospered and developed until the necessity for a 
constitutional form of government was felt, and in the year 697 
the first Doge, or President, was elected. For eight hundred 
years it continued to grow and prosper, notwithstanding occasional 
wars and reverses, and during the fifteenth century was the grand 
focus of the entire commerce of Europe, and indeed of the world. 
The city of Yenice proper numbered 200,000 inhabitants, pos- 
sessed 300 sea-going vessels with 8,000 sailors, and 3,000 smaller 
craft with 17,000 sailors, as well as a fleet of war-galleys manned 
by 11,000 men. In the sixteenth century the power of Yenice, 
however, began to decline, and its commerce was gradually super- 
seded by that of the Portuguese, in consequence of the discovery 
of the Cape of Good Hope route to India. Still for two hundred 
years longer Yenice continued to exercise a considerable influence 
throughont Europe, but from this time forward her commerce 
practically ceased, and for the past two hundred years she has 



APPENDIX. 369 

been chiefly interesting from the recollections of what she once 
was, and her peculiarities of situation and architecture. Situated 
on numerous islands with water communication between them, 
there are few or no streets, everj^thing being conveyed by water. 
In all Venice there is hardly a conveyance other than boats, and 
the few streets are short, unimportant, and simply passage-ways 
for foot-passengers. 

The principal business centre of the city is the Piazza San 
Marco, or Place of St. Mark, a space perhaps six hundred feet 
long by three hundred broad, around and near which are situated 
the public buildings and principal shops. At its eastern end is 
the celebrated church of St. Mark, to me the most interesting of 
the sights of Venice. It is an extensive and venerable old pile, 
covering, with its various parochial edifices, several acres. The 
church itself is a mass of rich marbles of various colors, inter- 
spersed with porphyry, alabaster, and other costly stones. The 
floor is paved in mosaic, with millions of fragments of the same 
material wrought in elaborate patterns, with here and there even 
more costly stones, such as jasper, amethyst, cornelian, and mala- 
chite interspersed. The walls and arches are covered with mosaic 
pictures, wrought with tiny cubes of many- colored glass, repre- 
senting various scenes in sacred history, while the high altar is a 
mass of artistic work in gold, silver, and precious stones, a de- 
scription of which alone would require a chapter, perhaps a vol- 
ume. The smoke of the candles upon the altar and the incense 
burnt during the ceremonies of centuries, have darkened all this 
splendid work, and given the whole interior a dark, even dingy 
look, and it is only when the church is lighted up during festival 
times that it appears at its best. "VYe were fortunate in witness- 
ing one of these services, and when the long procession of white- 
robed priests, with their Cardinal, slowly made the circuit of the 
church, bearing gaily colored banners, around which the smoke of 
the burning incense curled in graceful clouds, I could not but 
think that the Koman Catholic Church knew best how to make 
an impression upon the mass of humanity which instinctively 
seeks some method of worshipping the Infinite. Whether the 
conditions under which I have seen St. Mark have anything to do 
M'ith my impression or not I cannot say, but it seems to me the 
24 



870 COFFEE. 

most interesting structure of the kind I have ever visited. St, 
Peter's, at Rome, is massively wonderful ; the Cathedral of Milan 
is an incarnation of beauty ; St. Sophia, at Constantinople, Notre 
Dame, of Paris, and Westminster Abbey, in London, all have 
their historical and architectural features of interest, but it re- 
mains for old San Marco to charm me into a brown study, and 
summon up visions of the past in which I lose myself. For a 
thousand years this old edifice has looked down upon the Piazza 
of St. Mark and the grand spectacles of which it has been the 
scene. A hundred Doges have worshipped before its altars, and 
generation after generation of proud Venetians has flourished 
and passed away while yet Venice was mistress of the world. 
These and kindred thoughts were passing through my mind du- 
ring one of my visits to the old pile, when I witnessed an incident 
that I cannot forbear describing. A gentlemian holding a little 
fair-haired girl upon his lap sat listening to the music. A de- 
crepit old beggar-woman approached and stretching out her with- 
ered hand to the little girl asked for alms. The child in turn 
appealed to her father, who gave her some money which she laid 
in the old woman's hand. Just at that instant a ray of sunlight 
streamed down through an upper window, lighting up the group 
and falling full upon the face of the little girl, making it as radiant 
as that of an angel. The old woman stood for a moment looking 
steadfastly into the fair young face, and then suddenly seizing 
the child's hands, kissed them and hobbled away to the door as fast 
as her decrepit old limbs could carry her, never stopping to solicit 
other strangers who were near. The scene, in some of its fea- 
tures was remarkable and most impressive — the contrast between 
the little child just entering this life and the feeble old woman 
so near the end : the sunlight streaming in from the high window 
lighting up the scene and making the white smoke of the freshly 
burnt incense seem luminous and blue, and etherealizing even the 
very dust which floated in the air ; while the blended music of 
the organ and men's strong voices, as they chanted a grand old 
anthem, went swelling up to the roof, and then, as if unable to 
find room, came echoing down on the farther side. I do not 
know that I can describe it in words, but I shall not soon foi'get 
the picture and its setting. 



APPENDIX. 371 

From Venice to Florence by rail over the mountain chain of 
the Apennines is a pleasant journey of some eight or nine hours 
over one of the most picturesque of routes. In a distance of thirty 
miles there is more costly railway engineering than I have ever 
before seen in the same space. Within this distance there are 
forty-five tunnels, and 'the spaces intervening between these are a 
succession of substantial stone bridges or heavy rock-ciittings, 
which must have cost an immense sum of money. Florence is a 
delightful little city, situated in the valley of the Arno, and 
containing treasures of art which are worthy of years of study. 
Another eight hours brings us to Kome, around which centre 
more associations of historical interest than belong to any other 
city on earth. The massive ruins which remain fill the beholder' 
with wonder, and the beautiful specimens of the sculptor's art 
which still exist are so perfect that the sculptors of all the world 
come here to study, and seek in vain for inspirations which will 
equal them. 

One good thing which the Popes of Rome have done is to 
expend the revenues of the Church for the past two centuries in 
purchasing and collecting wdthin the walls of the Vatican a mu- 
seum of art-treasures that is unequalled elsewhere in the world ; 
it has cost untold sums, but the money might have been spent in 
a more foolish way — at any rate, it has made my stay in Rome a 
most enjoyable one. En passant, I happened to be in both 
Venice and Rome during the Carnival ; I saw its beginning in 
the Piazza of St. Mark, and its ending on the Corso at Rome. 
During the month preceding Lent the Italians of all classes go in 
for a good time, and during the last ten days, are apparently be- 
side themselves with merry-making. An opera has been named 
in honor of the Carnival of Venice, and the scenes on the Corso 
at Rome have been described by abler pens than mine each year 
for so long that the " memory of man runneth not back " to the 
beginning ; so I will only mention the leading features. During 
the last few days the festivities are organized by the Carnival 
" Committee on Arrangements ; " processions of maskers in fancy 
dresses take place every afternoon along the Corso (the principal 
business street), while every other day races between riderless 
horses take place. This is one of the principal features of the 



372 COFFEE. 

Carnival ; tlie pavement is covered with soft earth, and a half 
dozen or more fine horses without riders, saddles, or bridles, are 
turned loose at one end of a long street and spurred on by prickly 
balls, which are fastened by strings to a girth-strap, so that they 
will swing against the legs of the horse as he runs ; they are urged 
at the top of their speed for a distance of a mile or more, the 
foremost at the goal receiving a prize of greater or less value. 
There is no barrier to separate the horses from the mass of people 
which line the street on either side, and when the horses run well 
together the space is too narrow and serious accidents occur. The 
many balconies along the Corso are gaily decorated during Car- 
nival time, and are filled with spectators of the festivities, places 
frequently counnanding a high rent. During the first three days 
of the festivities " comfit " throwing is largely indulged in, and 
the last night an illumination takes place, every person carrying 
a M-ax taper which he strives to keep alight, at the same time en- 
deavoring to extinguish that of his next neighbor ; this makes a 
deal of fun, and the effect of thousands of tapers gleaming from 
every point through the long street is very picturesque. 

CITRON AND MACARONI. 

Citron and macaroni are Italian products ; therefore I trust 
the reader will take no exception to my coupling Italy — she of the 
sunny skies and the cradle of the arts — with the prosaic items 
above mentioned. People buy and use " Leghorn citron," and, 
when I came to Leghorn, I naturally expected to see it growing 
there, and post myself upon this article from beginning to end. 
But when I came to inquire for citron on the tree, it was nowhere 
to be found, and my visit to the manufactories developed the fact 
that the citron, a species of lemon, or the lemon, a species of 
citron, is chiefly grown in the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, 
where it is gathered, cut into halves, placed in salt, pickled, and 
shipped in casks to Leghorn, the principal point of preparation 
for use. As the citrons arrive in Leghorn, they look like very 
large lemons, with a tremendously thick rind, and very little sub- 
stance inside of it. From the time they are cut they remain in 
the salt pickle, say thirty days, and are tough, leathery, bitter, and 



APPENDIX. 373 

anything but agreeable to the taste. They are then placed in a 
huge boiler, wherein, for from one and a half to two hours, they 
are boiled tender. The seeds and pithy matter in the centre are 
then scooped out and thrown away, and the rind is put to soak in 
water slightly sweetened. This extracts a portion of the salt 
which it has received in the pickle, and imparts a slightly saccha- 
rine flavor. The next day it is taken out of the lirst solution and 
placed in a second ; the next day in a third ; the next in a fourth ; 
the next in a lifth, and the next in a sixth ; each of these solu- 
tions being a degree sweeter than the former, and by this time it 
has lost all the salt flavor and has become quite sweet. It is then 
boiled up for a short time in very heavy syrup, from whence it 
is taken out and placed in flat baskets, piled on racks in warm 
rooms, and left to dry and crystallize. Here it remains six or 
eight hours, when it is ready for packing, and is put up in the 
usual thin wooden boxes, in which shape it is familiar to all gro- 
cers. Here again, however, fashion in trade is exhibited ; for the 
English market it is packed in half boxes, for the German market 
in quarters, and a portion of each style is sent to America. 
Lemon and orange peel is prepared and packed to a limited extent 
in the same way. In short, citron may be roughly described as 
the thick peel of a species of lemon, pickled to extract its bitter 
flavor and absorb the oil, boiled to make it tender, saturated with 
white sugar syrup to make it palatable, and in this shape it con- 
stitutes one of the ingredients of the plum puddings and wedding 
cakes of the world. So much for Leghorn and its citron. 

Now for Naples and its macaroni. Naples is probably better 
known from its contiguity to Mount Vesuvius and Pompeii than 
from any other cause, but it deserves to be known for itself. Beau- 
tifully situated on a hillside, sloping up from the shores of a lovely 
bay — indeed, now that I recollect, Naples is celebrated for its 
beauty — with a climate probably as perfect as it is possible to find, 
and in the centre of a fertile district which grows wheat, wine, 
oils, and fruits in profusion, there are few places more favorably 
situated, either for commerce or residence, than Naples. A quaint 
old place it is, too, with its narrow streets and tall houses of six 
or seven stories, all of which seem to swarm with population to 
their very roofs. Flocks of goats, which pasture in the surround- 



374 COFFEE. 

ing country, are driven backward and forward eacli night and 
morning through the streets, in order that they may be milked 
before the eyes of milk consumers, who are here evidently anti- 
adulterationists, and do not believe that water added to the natural 
product improves the quality. Here and there, in sheltered nooks, 
public writers may be seen, writing out epistles for those who are 
unable to write for themselves (and they comprise by far the 
larger portion of the community). 

A hand-oi'gan playing on every block explains to an American 
where all the hand-organ players in America come from, and 
various other novel sights and sounds greet one at every turn. 
Beautiful shops for the sale of tortoise-shell, lava, and coral abound, 
for Naples is the great depot for these articles ; and glove manu- 
factories, where are manufactured most of the cheaper brands of 
" Paris kid gloves," are everywhere to be seen. The streets are 
paved with large blocks of lava from Yesuvius, which just around 
the point of the bay, some eight or ten miles off, rears its massive 
cone several thousand feet high, and from the crater at the top 
continually sends forth a column of steam and smoke, which is very 
suggestive of the mass of fire beneath. On the other side, at the 
foot of the mountain, lies Pompeii, with its streets and houses 
just as they were 1,800 years ago, when they were covered twenty 
feet deep with a mass of stones and ashes from Vesuvius. It has 
gradually been excavated during the last century, until now nearly 
the whole city is uncovered and exposed to view. .The remains 
which have been found furnish material for a most interesting 
study of the habits of the people of that day and generation. In 
the museum at Naples are preserved the charred remains of fruits 
and nuts, and an assortment of different grains and vegetables, 
of the same varieties and species as are used to this day ; even 
loaves of bread, which still perfectly preserve their form, are here 
to be seen. A bottle is also exhibited containing olive oil in a 
tolerable state of preservation, besides an immense assortment of 
household utensils, works of art, etc. 

But I find I am describing everything in and around Naples 
excepting the manufacture of macaroni, the process of which is 
as follows: The hardest and flintiest varieties of wheat are 
selected, first washed, and then thoroughly dried in the sun. This 



APPENDIX. 375 

wheat is then coarsely ground and run through an immense revolv- 
ing sieve to separate the starch from the bran and flinty portions. 
It is then successively passed through a series of six hand-sieves, 
each a little finer than that preceding, for the purpose of separating 
the flinty portion from the bran. This apparently simple process 
requires considerable skill and a certain knack, which it takes 
time to acquire. The motion which is given to the sieves by the 
sifters is half rotary and half up and down, with an indescribable 
side motion, which I can only charactei'ize as " boomerang," for it 
throws the mass which is being sifted in an opposite direction to 
that taken by the sieve. Every few minutes each sifter pauses 
and skims off the bran which has worked to the top and centre 
of the sieve, and after these vai'ious manipulations there remains 
a clean, flinty farina, known as semolina. This is then mixed 
with warm water into a stiff dough, and this dough is thoroughly 
kneaded by means of a long prism-like, hard- wood lever, so 
adjusted that the spring of the timber may be utilized in alter- 
nately raising and depressing it upon the mass of dough, which 
is thus pressed and kneaded into the required consistency. It is 
rather amusing to see two or three men sitting on the end of 
this lever and bobbing up and down, so as to throw their weight 
at one instant on the lever, bringing it down into the dough 
and then allowing it to spring up again, in order that it may be 
brouglit down in a new place. After this kneading lever has been 
passed over a mass of dough the latter resembles a huge cake of 
chocolate, or rather a cake of maple-sugar, which has been run 
into the mold known as " chocolate style." After it has been thus 
mixed and kneaded for about one hour, the dough is put into presses 
with perforated bottoms, and pressure being applied, it comes out 
through these holes in the shape known to us as macaroni. At 
this stage of the process it is, of course, soft and flexible, and in 
order to keep the various little strings of dough from sticking to- 
gether, it is constantly fanned by a boy, in order that the current 
of air thus made may slightly dry the outside of the sti-ings and pre- 
vent them from sticking together. It is then cut off and hung on 
racks or frames made of bamboo, to dry. As it hangs on the 
frames the different pieces are of unequal length, and a boy passes 
rapidly over them, wringing off the longer ends so as to make them 



378 COFFEE. 

■uniform in that respect. The drying has to be done in the shade 
and in a place not exposed to the wind, as, if dried too quickly, or 
if the slender pieces were blown against one another, they would 
be apt to break. When sufficiently dry, it is removed from the * 
frames and packed in boxes, such as are familiar to all grocers. 

The different sizes are made by changing the movable bottoms 
of the press and employing different sized perforations. I also 
forgot to say that each of these perforated holes has a core or 
centre around which the dough has to pass, and this produces the 
hollow which is a characteristic of macaroni. The reason for this 
arrangement is, if the macaroni were made solid, it would take 
ver}^ long to dry when hung upon racks, and, also, when dried, it 
would be very difficult to cook it without a great deal of boiling, 
and impossible to do so uniformly. So important is this con- 
sidered, and so defective do the Italians regard the product if 
not thus perforated, that a proverb has arisen in Italy to the effect 
that " a foolish person is like macaroni without any hole in it." 

Vermicelli is made from the same material and in the same 
way as macaroni, except that it is not hollow, it being so small that 
it is neither practicable nor necessary to make it so. 

The cooking of macaroni in Naples is a feature which also de- 
serves description. I here, for the first time, understood why 
Italians are so fond of this dish, and why it has never attained a 
very large consumption in America. It is because they know 
how to cook it so as to make it palatable, while we do not, A 
majority of American cooks put a quantity of macaroni in cold 
water and let it half soak, half boil for an indefinite time, 
until it is a watery, doughy mass. Then they throw some soft 
cheese crumbs on top of it, put it in a dish, place it in an 
oven and bake it until the top is thoroughly crusted and tough. 
As a contrast to this, the Neapolitans place the macaroni in boil- 
ing water, boil it for twelve to fifteen minutes, when it is tender 
but yet slightly elastic, and there is no danger of one piece stick- 
ing to another. The water is then poured off, and if to be served 
" au gratin," a little hard^ dry cheese is grated and not only 
sprinkled over it, but thoroughly mixed through it, so that the 
flavor of the cheese is to be found at the bottom as well as at the 
top of the dish, and a lump of butter or a trifle of fine salad 



APPENDIX. 377 

oil is also added, together with a little salt. It is then placed 
in the oven, baked for a moment, nntil a slight film forms on 
top of the dish ; then a trifle more cheese is grated npon the 
surface " for looks," and it is replaced in the oven and baked 
quickly for a few minutes until the top has a rich, brown ap- 
pearance, and it is then ready for the table. The way in which 
Neapolitans, however, of tener prepare their macaroni — and which 
I greatly prefer— is that known as d la Neapolitaine. It is boiled 
in the same manner as above described, but instead of serving 
with cheese, a rich sauce composed of the gravy or juices of 
meat is mixed with it, and it is then slightly browned in an 
oven as above. Instead of gravy or juices they sometimes use a 
tomato sauce in the same manner, and sometimes a combination 
of the two is employed. To my taste, either of the above makes 
a most agreeable dish, far superior to that prepared with cheese. 
If Americans will try macaroni a la Neajyolltaine^ I think the 
consvimption of this palatable and wholesome article of food will 
be largely increased. 



A GLIMPSE AT SPAIN IN 18Y7. 

From Marseilles I went to Barcelona by sea, and found it a 
considerable city, possessing large manufacturing industries, and, 
indeed, much more business-like in appearance than anything I 
had expected to see in Spain. From Barcelona I proceeded by 
rail to Valencia, passing througli Tarragona and a number of other 
inconsiderable places along the coast. Valencia, as most readers 
know, is a port of considerable importance for the export of or- 
anges, and for many miles before reaching the city the railway 
j)asses through a series of orange groves, which are most beautiful. 
At this time (March) the trees were covered with ripe fruit, and 
occasionally also the ground beneath, where they had fallen. In- 
deed, they seemed so plentiful that in many places they were 
hardly considered M'orth gathering. I need not toiich upon the 
journey from Valencia to Malaga, or my impressions of that place, 
as tliey are embodied in my description of raisins. From Malaga 



378 COFFEE. 

I proceeded to Cadiz by way of Gibraltar, stopping at tbat famous 
place long enough to visit the fortifications which have such a 
world-wide reputation. I must confess that I M'as somewhat dis- 
appointed in these, as I had formed an idea that it was an almost 
wholly inaccessible rock rising abruptly from the water and brist- 
ling with cannon at every point. In point of fact, it is nothing 
of the kind ; a narrow, flat neck of land runs out from the Spanish 
coast, ending in a promontory or knob of higher ground, and, while 
one side of it is exceedingly rocky and precipitous, the other is 
quite accessible, has considerable soil and vegetation, and upon 
this side has sprung up a small city of, perhaps, 15,000 or 20,000 
inhabitants, whose chief business consists in supplying the wants of 
shipping, as well as of the garrison and the families of the officers 
who reside there ; like all English colonies, it has good roads and 
pleasant gardens. There has also been quite a trade done from 
this place in smuggling goods into Spain, principally tobacco, but 
under the recent treaty agreements with England, Gibraltar is no 
longer a free port, and a heavy English duty is imposed upon to- 
bacco landed here, much to the chagrin of the adventurers who 
made a living by evading the Spanish revenue. The galleries cut 
into the rock on the precipitous side, which have so long been 
considered a wonder of the world, are really very extensive and 
curious, although they are not esteemed so formidable in modern 
warfare as the recently constructed batteries lower down along 
the water-front. It is upon these that the attention of the British 
Government has been directed of late years, and here is where 
the heaviest guns are mounted. These are not, perhaps, more 
than fifty to one hundred, feet above the water, while those in the 
galleries are far up upon the cliffs, at various altitudes ranging 
from eight hundred to twelve hundred feet. The most impor- 
tant of the rock-cut galleries were constructed by the British in 
the beginning of this century, but certain of them date back to 
a much earlier period, some even having been constructed, it 
is said, by the Moors during their occupation of Spain. The 
neck of land connecting Gibraltar proper with the main land is 
jointly occupied by British and Spanish troops, with a neutral 
ground, perhaps half a mile wide, between them. The Straits 
wliich here separate Europe from Africa look, perhaps, five or six 



APPENDIX. 379 

miles wide, altliougli at their narrowest part — between Europa 
Point and Cape Ceuta — the distance is really fifteen miles. 

From Gibraltar to Cadiz is about eighty miles, or say eight 
hours' run by the little coasting steamers which ply regularly be- 
tween Malaga and Cadiz, calling at Gibraltar. The city of Cadiz, 
viewed from the sea, presents a more striking and picturesque 
appearance than any city that I have seen, not even excepting 
Constantinople. Being situated upon a low neck of land project- 
ing out into the sea, it seems to rise abruptly from the water, 
and the tall, white houses, with their many cupolas, interspersed 
here and there with a gilded dome, present a dazzling appearance 
that one does not soon forget. On landing, the illusion is dis- 
pelled, however, as there is a sameness about the appearance of 
all the streets, and little or nothing to see. Being situated at the 
mouth of the Guadalquivir, Cadiz possesses a considerable import 
and export trade, and commercially is one of the most important 
cities in Spain. 

From Cadiz to Seville by rail, via Jerez, is a pleasant railway 
ride of a few hours, and Seville, I think, is quite the most attrac- 
tive of the Spanish cities I have visited. Most of the streets are 
wide and clean, and the public buildings many and imposing. 
The old Moorish palace, or " Alcazar," is being restored in a way 
which gives one a better idea of Moorish architecture even than 
the Alhambra at Granada, and the cathedral at Seville is one of 
the finest in Spain. 

Speaking of cathedrals, one finds them here most imposing 
structures, even in the poorest towns. They are of such magni- 
ficent proportions and appointments that one cannot help think- 
ing that the people have been impoverished for the pui-pose of 
building them. It is quite evident that the priestly element is a 
controlling power in Spain. Everywhere one goes, crosses are seen 
on all sorts of buildings, both public and private, and at street- 
corners the images of saints are almost as frequent as are the 
street-lamps. I was informed by a resident of Valencia that the 
census of some of the principal districts showed one priest to every 
thirty-two inhabitants, and, wdiile it would be, perhaps, unfair to 
say that all the troubles wdiich Spain has experienced are due to 
priestly influence, yet it cannot be denied that the priests are a great 



380 COFFEE. 

incubus, and have materially assisted to keep Spain back in the 
march of progress which the civilized nations of the Avorld have 
been making during the present century. It is but a few months 
since the intiuence of the church prevented the adoption of a sys- 
tem of public education in Spain, and only a few days ago four 
hundred Spanish Protestants, who had met for worship in a back 
street in Cadiz to listen to a sermon from their pastor, were turned 
out of doors by ai'med policemen and the service prohibited. It 
seems that, according to an article of the Spanish Constitution, 
such gatherings are illegal ; this article forbids every " public dis- 
play of heretical teaching." " Protestants are not allowed to 
make their places of worship known by any public placards ; " 
they are "prohibited from worshipping with open doors," and 
they " may not sing or pray so loud as to be heard in the streets." 
So wide are the powers of repression given by this article, that it 
would enable the police to seize any copy of the Protestant bible 
which may be exposed for sale, or any literarj' work the clergy 
may think calculated to injure the national faith. This, perhaps, 
is hard for an American to believe, but, wdien in Madrid, I saw a 
notice for the sale of indulgences publicly posted on the entrance- 
doors of a church, together with a notice to the eifect that all the 
indulgences were to be obtained there which were for sale at a 
rival church down the street. The state of affairs in Spain to-day 
is another illustration of how ignorance and intolerance go hand 
in hand, and it is evident that the opposition to public instruction 
on the part of the Spanish clergy arises from a fear that they 
would not be able to so absolutely control an intelligent popula- 
tion as an ignorant one. Spain has a glorious climate, a fertile soil 
on which can be grown almost every pi-oduct of both temperate 
and tropical climes ; is most favorably situated, when geograph- 
ically considered, for commercial purposes, and yet she is behind 
all the other principal nations of the earth. Educated Spaniards 
are chivalrous and hospitable, and second to none in ability and 
intelligence, but the mass of the people are sadly ignorant, and, 
of course, correspondingly fanatical and ci'uel. 

In Yalencia I saw placards announcing cock-fights, " under the 
auspices of the society for promoting the culture of game fowls," 
and in all the principal cities everybody seemed to be anticipating 



APPENDIX. 381 

a great deal of pleasure from the bull fights which were to take 
place on the occasion of the King's visit, then near at hand. At 
first I thought I should like to see what "the national amusement " 
was like, but after conversing with an English friend who had 
recently witnessed one, I altered my mind ; the successive disem- 
bowelling of a dozen horses is not a sight that the average Amer- 
ican appreciates, and this, with the ultimate slaughtering of the 
bull, with a little more than the usual risk to the butcher, is all 
there is of it. It is to be hoped that, with the onward march of 
intelligence and civilization, such spectacles will soon cease to be 
esteemed amusements, even in Spain. 

The Spaniards are a handsome race, the women especially so, 
and their natural beauty is much enhanced by the gi'aceful man- 
tilla or head-dress which is almost universally worn. I think I 
never saw so many beautiful women in the same space of time as 
I did during the month I w^as in Spain. 

Spanish architecture is peculiar, the houses being usually built 
around a square, open court, which is planted with dwarf trees 
and often beautifully ornamented with fiowers ; the door or pas- 
sage-way to the street is usually closed with only an elaborately 
wrought open iron-work door, if I may be allowed the expression, 
which admits a current of air, and, at the same time, affords pas- 
sers-by a glimpse of charming interiors, and windows with similar 
guards are almost always left open to admit the air. Walls are 
usually brilliantly whitewashed, which imparts a dazzling whiteness 
to everything that is extremely trying to the eyes, and makes a 
Spanish city often look cleaner than it smells. 

Spanish currency is " a delusion and a snare," at least to a 
stranger ; nominally the unit of value is the " real '' (about five 
cents), but really there is no such coin, and the stranger has to 
make his way among a bewildering maze of "cuartos," "pesetas," 
" duros," etc., which strongly try both his temper and his math- 
ematical abilities. 

In Spain everybody smokes, even the ladies " taking a hand " 
at it, and it is no uncommon thing to see a pretty woman, after 
dinner, pull out a cigarette and request a light from her next 
neighbor ; in railway cars, diligences (stage-coaches), etc., it is not 
even considered necessary to ask ladies if they object, and, indeed, 



382 COFFEE. 

the practice may be said to be universal. Tobacco is a govern- 
ment monopoly, and (including cigars and cigarettes) is manufac- 
tured at immense government factories, the one at Seville alone 
employing about four thousand persons, principally women ; plug 
tobaccos are, however, purchased by the government from our 
Kichmond manufacturers. 



RAISIN CULTUEE AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET. 

"Valencia" raisins are grown within a small territory near 
Cape San Antonio, on the eastern coast of Spain, and of which 
Denia is the shipping point. They take their name, however, 
from Valencia, a somewliat larger place, about thirty or forty 
miles to the ISTorth. The grapes are the same variety of muscatel 
as that from which the " Malaga " raisins are produced, and when 
ripe, are white or semi-ti-ansparent ; they grow in large bunches, 
similar to the " Almeria " grapes, which are exported green to 
America, but possess less water than the Almeria, and more sac- 
charine matter ; and they also have more of the muscatel flavor. 
The Valencia district, being so much farther north, they cannot 
rely upon the necessary length and intensity of sunshine to cure 
the grapes in Malaga style, and therefore a different mode is 
adopted. 

When first picked they are put into a wire basket and dipped 
in a solution of boiling lye (in Spanish, lejia\ for the purpose of 
slightly cracking or shrivelling the skin, which allows the moisture 
in the grape to dry out faster, but this also permits the saccharine 
matter to exude slightly, which accounts for the fact that Valen- 
cia are somewhat more sticky than the Malaga raisins. They 
are then spread upon mats made of reeds, called canistos, and 
these are placed on a piece of level ground known as the secadero, 
or drying-place, where they are spread out during the daytime, 
and at night put together in piles of ten mats and covered to shield 
them from rain or dew. In this way the raisins are dried in from 
five to seven days, when they are put in baskets, conveyed to Denia 
and sold to the shipping merchants there. These baskets are 
made of grass, and the tare will average about four and a half per 
cent, of the total weight of the package, but a curious custom of 



APPENDIX. ^383 

the trade is to allow notliing for the tare, and, therefore, mer- 
chants have' to calculate the price that they pay accordingly. 
This custom originated many years ago, and has been continued 
down to the present time. The merchant also has to lose, in a 
great degree, the weight of the stems, for, although a portion of 
the raisins drop oif the stems in the process of handling and dry- 
ing, yet many of them remain, and they have to be stripped from 
the stems at the shipping ports, where they are packed in boxes 
containing just twenty-eight pounds net, or a quarter of an Eng- 
lish hundredweight. By far the larger portion of the Valencia 
crop goes to England, but the demand for Valencia raisins has 
been rapidly growing in the United States and Canada, until, in 
1875, 533.,22'1 boxes out of a total crop of 1,580,000 were con- 
sumed in the United States. Out of the crop of 187G, however, 
a larger proportion went to England, owing to the fact that prices 
in Malaga were much lower than in Denia, and shipments of 
Valencia raisins to the English market realized better prices than 
those which were sent to the United States. The average pro- 
duction for the last three years has been about a million and a 
half of boxes, but within ten years has fluctuated between 800,000 
and 1,600,000. 

" Malaga " raisins are produced within a limited territory in 
the neio-hborhood of Malacca, some two or three miles farther 
south, and principally along the coast of the Mediterranean. A 
raisin vineyard looks like any other vineyard, except, perhaps, 
that the vines are pruned closer to the ground, and, consequently, 
produce less foliage than those in some other countries. Many 
varieties of grape will not bear this close pruning, but the vine 
which bears the raisin grape has sufficient vitality to throw out 
shoots which bear fruit the same season, and the younger a shoot 
will bear the more perfect the fruit it produces. There are 
few or no trees in the raisin district, except orange and olive 
trees, and these, of course, are cultivated. The first impression 
of an American seeing this country in March, as I did, is that the 
whole of it would not be worth a thousand dollars. I have seen 
no country, except, perhaps, the Greek islands, that compares with 
it in a sterile and forbidding appearance. A range of mountains, 
the " Sierra jSTevada," runs along the coast at a distance of some 



384 COFFEE. 

ten or fifteen miles, and from these jut out a series of spurs or 
f ijot-liills, upon whicli the raisin crop is grown. They are " all 
up and down," and, indeed, I believe are only available for the 
cultivation of the grape. The grapes begin to ripen about the 
first of August, and, as soon as picked, are conveyed to the drying- 
places, wliich here are called toldos. These are probably one hun- 
dred feet long by twenty feet broad, paved with clean gravel stones, 
and sloping toward the west in order to have the full effect of 
the afternoon sun. They are surrounded by a low wall, for the 
purpose of allowing this space to be covered at night, wliich is 
usually done with boards, but sometimes with canvas. Several 
of these places are usually ranged side by side. The grapes gen- 
erally remain here for twelve or fifteen days, according to the 
weather, being turned from time to time so as to expose all 
parts of the bunch to the sun, and, when dry, are packed in boxes 
such as are familiar to us in the United States. The boxes are 
manufactured at large mills in Malaga, and, together with the white 
paper for packing, are furnished by the merchants to the farmers, 
who, after filling them, ship them again to the merchants in 
Malaga, 

This brings me to the consideration of the weight of raisins 
in the box. This is absolutely within the control of the merchants 
in Malaga, and, in turn, within that of the dealers of the United 
States. "Those rascally Spanish farmers" pack neither more 
nor less quantity than what they are ordered to do, and, as above 
mentioned, the question of having a uniform weight of raisins 
packed in the boxes is wholly within the hands of the dealers in 
the United States. It simply requires concert of action and a 
demand on the part of the Spanish merchants and American 
dealers that all raisins shall be packed so and so, and it will be 
done. A large raisin shipper in Malaga remarked to me that 
when the dealers in J!^ew York kicked up a row about the mat- 
ter two years ago, the shippers in Malaga came together and 
resolved that they would not ship under ten kilos, or twenty- 
two and a half pounds. This was adhered to until certain im- 
porting merchants in New York sent out explicit orders for boxes 
of less weight than those, and they either had to fill the orders 
at the weights named or lose the business. Of course it is to the 



APPENDIX. 385 

interest of these importing merchants to continue tliis practice, 
for, as long as the duty is two and a half cents per pound, arid 
they only pay duty on actual weight., they make two and a half 
cents on every pound of raisins short in a box, and supposing 
they only make five cents on every box upon a cargo of thirty 
thousand boxes, it amounts to the nice little sum of $1,500. 
While it is both desirable and feasible to have a uniform quantity 
packed in the boxes, a still greater reform, which is within the 
power of the dealers in the United States (and one which would 
insure the continued practice of packing a uniform quantity in a 
box), is the inauguration of the practice of buying as well as sell- 
ing all raisins by weight. I do not believe that the retail mer- 
chants of the United States are so unmindful of their own inter- 
ests as to desire to continue the practice of buying an uncertain 
quantity of raisins " by the box," when they can buy a certain 
quantity " by the pound," nor that they are so foolish as to wish 
to continue figuring their margin of profit on an uncertain basis. 
It only remains for them to manifest to the wholesale houses with 
whom they trade their wish to buy their raisins by loeight. The 
wholesale merchants in turn will then combine and force the im- 
porting fruit houses, who are alone to blame, into the practice of 
selling by weight. 

I forgot to state that loose muscatels were originally those 
raisins which fell from the stems during the process of drying, or 
were clipped off from the fuller bunches in order that all parts of 
the bunch might be exposed to the sun. These at first were sold 
for a lower price, but as they were usually large, fine fruit, they 
became very popular, and now fashion in trade is again exempli- 
fied by growers positively having to strip from the stems a con- 
siderable quantity of fine fruit in order to fill the orders for 
"loose muscatels." I also forgot to mention that the experiment 
of drying raisins by artificial heat is being tried here, two dryers, 
somewhat on the Alden process, being already in use, and the 
results thus far are quite encouraging. 

After the raisins are received from the farmers by the ship- 
ping houses in Malaga, they are placed in warehouses and every 
box is overhauled, each layer being turned and inspected and on 
all the better qualities the papers changed, sometimes very ex- 
25 



386 COFFEE. 

pensive lithographed ones being used for packing the finer fruit. 
The system of advances to growers is also quite general, many 
farmers being under contract not to sell their crop to any other 
than certain shippers, but on the other hand there is always a 
certain amount of stock awaiting sale in Malaga, and shipping 
merchants can, by going through this stock, purchase different 
qualities to fill orders as received. Unlike the Valencia crop, the 
Malaga raisins are mostly shipped to the United States, as will 
be seen by the following table, showing the total crop and ship- 
ments for the last four years : 

Season Seapon Season Season 

1876-77. 1875-76. 1874-75. 1873-74. 

United States 1,311,966 856,277 956,318 1,220,277 

Other countries 947,034 671,233 479,683 746,723 

Total 2,259,000 1,527,500 1,436,000 1,967,000 

Most of the best fruit still goes to London (from whence 
originated the term " London Layers "), but the term " American 
fruit," which formerly here meant refuse of the market, has 
begun to lose its original significance, and the United States now 
takes a much larger quantity of fine fruit than formerly. 

Different houses make up slightly different statistics of ex- 
ports, and the official figures of the United States Consul make 
quite a different showing from that of any of the statistics which 
I have seen. This, however, is perhaps inevitable, as the differ- 
ent mercantile houses are not fond of telling their business to 
each other, and the records which they make up are in many 
cases estimated. 

OLIVES AND OLIVE OIL. 

But few Americans have an idea of the magnitude of the 
business done in these items, or of the vast extent of country 
over which the cultivation of the olive tree extends. Li coming 
from the East Lulies I first saw the olive-tree groMdng in 
Greece, although I believe that it flourishes in Asia Minor and 
also throughout a considerable portion of Syria and Palestine. 
Throughout nearly the whole of Italy the olive is a chief crop, 



APPENDIX. 387 

and in Spain I saw liundi-eds of thousands of acres covered with 
this beautiful tree. It is also grown to a considerable extent in 
the South of France, and indeed, it may be said that from Tur- 
key in Asia to Spain, over a strip of country two thousand miles 
long and three or four hundred miles wide, it is almost the only 
tree that flourishes. In general size and appearance it is some- 
what like an apple tree, and an olive grove seen at a distance 
looks like an apple orchard. More close, however, the appearance 
is different. The leaf is long and slender, somewliat like a wil- 
low leaf, and the branches, although not quite so slender and 
bending as those of the willow, are much more so than those 
of the apple tree. The color of the leaf is a grayish green, 
especially on the under side, and when a breeze is blowing, tlie 
leaves turn upward like those of a poplar tree, making one side 
of the tree appear quite different in color from the other. The 
trunks of the older trees have a strange propensity to grow 
into fantastic shapes, and they appear to be constantly decaying 
in parts, but this decay is replaced by new growth. They are 
carefully and closely pruned, and it is quite common both in Italy 
and Spain to see all the limbs of an old tree cut away in order to 
produce a young and fresh growth, upon which the fruit is much 
finer than that grown on the older branches. Raised ^rom the 
seed, it takes about five or six years before the trees begin to 
bear, and about twenty years before they arrive at maturity and 
produce a full crop ; after this, however, they last for hundreds 
of years. 

Table olives are pickled while green, and are placed at once 
in a brine, or lye, usually made of salt water and wood ashes. 
In about eight days they are ready for use, but may be kept in 
the brine an indefinite time without injury. Sometimes the 
brine is changed, however, two or three times, each time being 
made a little weaker. 

The olives destined for producing oil are allowed to remain 
on the tree until they are ripe, at which time they are of a dark 
purple color, and the meat quite soft and pulpy. These usually 
drop off the trees of their own accord, and being picked up, are 
carried to the press-house, where they are placed together in piles 
and allowed to remain from ten to twenty days. This softens 



388 COFFEE. 

tliem still more, and they are then ground under heavy stone 
lollers until thoroughly crushed. Small portions of this pulpy 
matter are then placed in envelopes of coarse bagging, which are 
laid up in piles under a screw-press, and the screw being brought 
down, the oil and juice exude and run down in a purple stream 
into a reservoir beneath. The oil being lightest, rises to the top, 
and is drawn off into receptacles provided for it. After the first 
pi'cssure the envelopes are taken from the press, moistened with 
liot water, again placed under the press and squeezed until no 
more oil can be extracted, but the oil obtained from this last pres- 
sure is kept separate, and is not esteemed so highly as that first 
extracted. The oil as it runs from the press is necessarily quite 
crude, containing much sediment; different countries, and different 
districts, even, producing oil of different flavor and quality. It is 
usually refined by the manufacturer by straining it through layers 
of cotton cloth, and also in some places by means of charcoal fil- 
ters. 

But little has been done, however, either in Italy or Spain, the 
great oil-producing countries, in the way of completing the refin- 
ing process and packing the oil in bottles for foreign consumption. 
It is usually shipped in large casks to Marseilles and Bordeaux, 
where refining and packing is a large business, amounting in Bor- 
deaux to probably 150,000 to 200,000 cases of fine oil per year. I 
could obtain no statistics of the exports from Marseilles, but it is 
probable that the quantity exceeds that sent from Bordeaux ; the 
quality, however, does not stand as high, owing to the fact that the 
Marseilles manufacturers have always endeavored to furnish a low- 
priced article, while those at Bordeaux sought chiefly to deal in the 
better qualities. Hence the fact that the Bordeaux brands are much 
more highly esteemed in America than those which come from 
Marseilles. Probably three-fourths of all the olive oil bottled in 
Bordeaux comes from Italy, while about one-fourth is produced in 
France. Little or none comes from Spain, notwithstanding the 
vast quantity produced there. AVhere it all goes is a mystery, 
but large quantities are consumed in Spain, where it is used for 
burning, cooking, and even lubricating purposes, besides quite 
supplanting butter as a table article. Indeed, in all oil-producing 
countries, butter, as an article of table consumption, is of quite 



APPENDIX. 389 

secondary importance. This at first, to an American, seems quite 
singular, but one soon becomes accustomed to olive oil, and as fond 
of it as the natives themselves. I do not know why it is that 
Americans generally consume so little of it, unless it be that they 
are so dosed with castor and cod-liver oils for medicine that the 
very name of oil becomes disagreeable to them. Certainly the 
vegetable product, olive oil, compares favorably in cleanliness and 
healthfulness with the animal product, butter, and the dislike 
which some people entertain for it is wholly the result of education. 

As above stated, the bottlers in Bordeaux buy the oil in large 
casks in a partly refined condition, and complete the process, 
which requires considerable experience and great care. Different 
bottlers produce oil of slightly different flavor, by blending the 
products of different sections of country, and considerable scope 
is afforded in this direction. As a rule, the French oil is most 
highly esteemed, but some of the finer Italian oils (from Tuscany) 
are probably as good as any in the w^orld. The term " Virgin 
Oil," however, is applied exclusively to the finest quality of 
French production. 

The gi-een olives put up for table use by the Bordeaux bottlers 
are of several different varieties. The large Spanish olives, 
known to us as " Queen Olives," are known to the trade as " Gor- 
dalles." These, by the way, are quite a distinct variety from the 
other olives grown in Spain, known as " Manzanillas," which ai-e 
used for making oil, the " Gordalles " having much more meat 
but less oil. The smaller olives put up in Bordeaux are princi- 
pally of French growth, and are known as " ximmelleaux " and 
" Verdalles." The " Verdalles " have a strong, full flavor, and 
are much used for sauces, to be served with meats, while the 
" Ammclleaux " have a little more oil and less flavor. There is 
also a third variety, known as " Picholles," similar to the " Am- 
melleaux " in character, but larger and longer. " Olives farcies " 
are, as most grocers know, olives stuffed wnth either anchovies or 
capers. As a rule, the American trade prefers the " Queen 
Olives," on account of their size and fine appearance ; but in 
Europe the smaller olives are quite generally preferred on account 
of their flavor and the finer texture of the meat. 

The season for making oil lasts about six months, say from 



390 COFFEE. 

October to April, varying somewhat in different countries. That 
made duiing the first two months is not as good as the quality 
produced later, being green in color, and so cloudy (" louche," in 
the vernacular of the trade), that no amount of refining can make 
it brilliant. And this quality also becomes rancid quicker than 
the finer oil. As a rule, the more thoroughly oil is refined and 
the less trace of fruity sediment there is left in it, the better it 
will keep. Oil should never be exposed to the heat or sun, and 
consequently the show window of a grocery store is about as bad 
a place to keep it in as can be found. Manufacturers find that it 
keeps best in a cool, dry place, and the larger the quantity to- 
gether in bulk, the better. Large earthen jars are used to some 
extent for this purpose, and the larger manufacturers and dealers 
frequently dig huge cisterns in the ground, known as " Piles," 
which are carefully cemented and then filled with oil, some of 
them holding many thousands of gallons. 

There are doubtless many other points connected with this 
subject which would be interesting if I could think of them, but 
I have just jotted down, in a somewhat disjointed way, all that 
have occurred to me as I wrote. It was said of Horace Greeley 
that his first contributions for the press, although crude, were 
attractive, because of their freshness and vigor, and I am there- 
fore emboldened to send what I am well aware is a crude produc- 
tion, relying upon my grocer's eyes having seen, and my pen 
having recorded, what may be of interest to the members of the 
guild. 

SHEKKY ITS MANUFACTUEE, TREATMENT, AND CHAEACTERISTIC8. 

If there is one thing more than another which has surprised 
me during my present trip, it has been to find how woefully igno- 
rant I was of the whys and the wherefores connected with many of 
the different staples in wdiich I have been dealing for years, and in 
regard to which I had professed to be an oracle, giving advice and 
affording information which I now find, in most instances, I was 
not qualified to give. Indeed, I think, as a rule, the average 
grocer knows less about the origin of the goods in which he deals 
than almost any other class of merchants. Perhaps this is due to 



APPENDIX. 391 

the fact that grocers handle a great variety of articles from many 
different countries, and, besides, are usually self-made men, who 
have been deeply absorbed in the struggle for a livelihood, and 
have had their noses kept, as it were, so close to the business 
grindstone that they have never had much chance to investigate 
the pedigree of the articles in which they deal. A trip around 
the world, such as I have taken, teaches a man something about 
these things, and also geography, toleration, and his own unimpor- 
tance in the great planet we live on. I have learnt something 
during my trip in all of these respects, and I trust that in the 
future I shall be not only a better merchant, but also a better 
citizen than before. 

One of the things in which I had professed to be somewhat of a 
connoisseur was sherry wine, but, when I came to Spain, I found 
nearly everything about it new and interesting. Jerez, or Xeres, 
from whence the name sherry is derived, the great centre of this 
trade, is situated about thirty miles in the interior from Cadiz, 
the shipping port, and here, within a limited district, perhaps ten 
miles square, of hilly, rolling country, are grown the grapes from 
which the true sherry is made. I say true sherry, because a very 
large quantity of wine is yearly put upon the market, which is 
grown, not only in other districts in Spain, but is also manipula- 
ted into sherry at Hamburg from common German wines, and at 
Cette, in France, from the common white wines of that country. 
Some coloring, sweetening and flavoring matter, together with a 
little alcohol, added to the light wines of these countries, makes 
a tolerable imitation of the poorer qualities of Jerez wines, and 
vast quantities of this stuff are yearly put upon the English mar- 
ket, a considerable proportion also finding its way to America. 
Some very good wines are grown in other districts in Spain, 
which find their way to Jerez, and are sold as wines of Jerez 
growth. Some of these are excellent wines, perhaps equal, or 
superior in quality, to some of those grown within the Jerez dis- 
trict, for there is a considerable difference in the wines grown in 
Jerez proper. As a rule, the wine produced on the plains in the 
immediate vicinity of the town is of quite ordinary quality, 
while that grown upon the outlying hills, which have a white, 
chalky soil, known as "albariza," is of the finest quality. When 



392 COFFEE. 

the grapes are ripe they are picked and conveyed in panniers, 
slung upon the backs of mules, to the press-house, where they are 
thrown into large wooden vats, known as " lagares," eight or ten 
feet square and about two feet deep, slightly raised above the 
ground. 

After being slightly sprinkled with gypsum to prevent exces- 
sive fermentation of the juice, they are here trodden with the 
feet. When sufficiently crushed they are shovelled to one side and 
a fresh layer of grapes is spread over the bottom of the " lagare " 
and again trodden until crushed, this being continued until a suf- 
ficient quantity has been accumulated to put under the press. 
Here they are built up in a compact mass, somewhat the same as 
pomace at a cider-mill, and a fiat wooden slab being placed on 
the top, the screw is brought down with sufficient pressure to ex- 
press the juice. This treading and pressing of the grapes is gen- 
erally done at night, the vintage being a very busy time, usually 
lasting altogether a little more than two weeks. After most of the 
juice has been expelled from the grapes, the stalks are separated 
from the pressed grapes and the skins again subjected to a severe 
hydraulic pressure ; but the product of this pressure is kept separ- 
ate from that first expressed, and is usually distilled into spirits. 
The grape-skins are also sometimes distilled direct and the refuse 
used for fertilizing purposes. 

The juice of the grape, or new wine, called " mosto," yielded 
by the first pressure, is first strained and then put into ordinary 
butts or casks holding about one hundred and eighteen gallons, but 
only filled to perhaps three-fourths of their capacity. This is so 
as to afford room for fermentation. Tlie casks are then sent to 
the "bodegas," or wine-cellars in Jerez or the outlying towns 
nearest the vineyard, where the bmigs are loosened and the wine is 
left to ferment. These are really not cellars, but immense one-story 
warehouses built upon a level with the ground and covered with 
a substantial roof of earthen tiles ; each " bodega " has four or 
more aisles, along each of which is ranged a double row of casks, 
usually three tiers high. Some of these " bodegas " are of im- 
mense size, holding as many as five or six thousand casks, in 
February or March succeeding the vintage, the fermented wine is 
drawn from its lees into new casks and more or less grape spirit 



APPENDIX. 393 

usually added to It ; It now enters upon a period of development in 
which different samples of wine from the same vineyard will turn 
out to be of a totally different character, in the vernacular of the 
'• bodega " being known as " palmas," " palos cortados,-' and the 
inferior wines as " entre finos " or middling fine, " bastos," rough 
or coarse, " redondos," round, and " abocados," mild. These latter 
are also often described as " single, double, and triple rayas," which 
grades are indicated by one, two, or three lines chalked upon the 
butts, these lines representing respectively first, second, and third 
quality. AVhile it is possible to note a different character in the 
different butts of wines immediately after they are racked from 
the lees, yet it cannot be classified with any degree of certainty 
until after- the third year. Those which are classed as " palmas " 
usually develop in the course of time into " amontillado," which, as 
most grocers know, is a pale, dry wine, possessing a sort of etlier- 
ous flavor. The " palos cortados " in course of time become 
" olorosos," and are smoother, fuller, and richer in flavor than the 
" amontillados," and usually darker in color. 

The development and ageing of the finer Jerez wines is usu- 
ally carried on by a system of blending known as "soleras," which 
in brief consists of drawing off a portion from each cask of the 
older wines and replacing this with the same quantity of newer 
wine of similar character, which soon assimilates with and becomes 
as good as the older wine ; in short, the old wine " eats up " the 
new. In this system of building up their stocks lies the chief 
profit of the bodega proprietors, and it enables them to maintain, 
for an indefinite period, uniform types of wines, upon which many 
of them have made a reputation and a fortune. It is only the 
finer wines, however, that are known as " solera " wines, by far 
the larger quantity shipped from Jerez being simply wines of va- 
rious character from three to six years old, blended so as to 
fairly represent the character of wine ordered. These are 
frequently branded " Oloroso," " Amontillado," etc., in compli- 
ance with instructions received with the orders, but are in no 
way entitled to these designations, which, of course, are given 
them to make them sell ^ it is the old story of strong competition, 
with consequent misrepresentation, and the only sure guide a pur- 
chaser of sherry has, is to deal only with houses that know their 



394 COFFEE. 

business thoroughly, and have a reputation for honesty and relia- 
bility. 

The range of prices here is extraordinary : one of the largest 
shippers in Jerez assured me that during the past season he had 
shipped wine ranging from £16 sterling up to £200 per butt of 
118 gallons, the greater part of his business ranging, however, be- 
tween £30 an4 £60 per butt. 

All sherry is more or less sweetened before shipment by the 
admixture of a little " dulce " or sweet wine, which is made from a 
different variety of grape — the Pedro JiTnenez — which is cultiva- 
ted for this purpose. While some dealers both in England and 
the United States pretend to sell natural dry sherry, I venture 
the assertion that they either misrepresent or are mistaken ; the 
finest solera wines — and I tasted some valued at £300 sterling per 
butt and upward — are naturally so dry that they are unpalatable 
even to those who are fond of the " driest " wine ; and two ship- 
pers told me that although they frequently received orders for dry 
natural wine — the driest they had — their experience in having 
wines rejected for this cause had taught them that a slight blend 
of dulce was necessary to insure satisfaction to their customers. 

A large portion of the sherry shipped from Jerez is also 
colored. This is done by adding a trifle of " vino de color," a 
very dark, heavy wine made by boiling unfermented "nmst" 
down to one-fifth of its original volume, producing a heavy, 
brown, bitterish syrup ("arope" or "arrope"), which is again diluted 
with new wine to a somewhat thinner consistency, after which it 
is stored away in butts to attain age before being used to deepen 
the color of the paler wines as above stated. Katural sherry, as 
seen in the Jerez bodegas, is quite a different article from that 
commonly sold ; it is (with the exception of the old wines, which 
gradually acquire color from the cask) nearly as white as a Rhine 
wine ; and, although possessing a more aromatic flavor, is equally 
dry. 

I suppose that a description of the titillations of my palate by 
the rare old vintages of Jerez would scarcely be sufficiently inter- 
esting to the reader to justify my describing them in extenso. I 
have endeavored rather to give facts of interest to the trade than 
to touch upon the points which are usually most prominent in a 



APPENDIX. 395 

tourist's mind, namely, liis own personal sensations and experien- 
ces. I will briefly state, however, that I tasted vintages here that 
were three times my own age, and I must confess that my vener- 
ation for them is less now than before I tasted them. I believe 
that a vintage is like a human being ; it requires a certain amount 
of time to mature, after which it begins to deteriorate. There 
is much humbug about very old wdnes. The finesf wine I tasted 
in Jerez was an Oloroso, only about ten years old. 



FKAKCE. 

WAYSroE SCENES, THOUGHTS, AND FANCIES. 

The moment you cross the frontier from Spain to France 
you begin to realize that you are in a different country. The first 
station in France on the international route between Madrid and 
Bordeaux is Ilendaye, where we change from the Spanish to the 
French train, and the contrast is something remarkable. The 
railway carriages are newei*, brighter, and cleaner; the refresh- 
ments served in the " buffet " quite unexceptionable ; and the 
inspector of tickets when performing his duty greets you with a 
pleasant " Billets, Monsieur, s'il vous plait ! " and after cheeking 
them returns them with a bow and a polite " Merci, Monsieur ! " 
all very different from the treatment received at the hands of the 
Spanish officials just across the frontier. Our train, too, after it 
starts for Bordeaux, makes double the average speed that the 
Spanish trains have made, and altogether an American begins to 
feel that he is in a civilized country again. 

Bordeaux is a commercial city in which it is quite evident to a 
stranger, from the large lots of goods which are constantly being 
moved, a heavy business is transacted ; but the wholesale merchants 
seem to take things quite easily, going to their offices between eight 
and nine o'clock, and after working for two or three hours, then 
adjourning for "breakfast," which is here a hearty meal, equivalent 
to the mid-day dinner of the American people, and to this they 
usually devote a couple of hours. After this some of them visit 



396 COFFEE. 

the cafes, where more or less business is transacted over coffee and 
cigars, or perhaps a glass of absinthe or other liqueur. Dominoes 
and cards are sometimes brought into plaj here to while away 
another couple of hours until " 'Change " time, when everybody 
doing a wholesale business goes " on 'Change." Here, for about 
an hour, business is transacted and information acquired, after 
which some proceed to their offices to finish correspondence, while 
others go to their homes, the usual dinner hour being about seven 
o'clock. While there are hard working exceptions to this rule, 
the above description fairly represents the life of an average 
wholesale merchant in France, but the retailers have a much 
harder time, their shops being kept open on an average as many 
hours as those of retail dealers in our country, and the men not 
only work themselves, but their wives and children work also. 
Indeed female labor in France is quite a feature. Most of the 
sales io retail shops of every branch of trade are made by women, 
and, to their credit be it said, they are, as a rule, much more in- 
dustrious, energetic, and frugal than the men. In short, they are 
every way more self -helpful than -women are in America, and it 
would be much better for the United States if shopkeepers 
generally could receive the same efficient aid from their wives 
and daughters that French shopkeepers do. I was much im- 
pressed with this thought on reading, a few days since, a let- 
ter from a grocer in Yirginia, who remarked that his wife, in 
his absence, took charge of the store, and could sell and put up a 
bill of goods and say " thank you, sir," in as acceptable a manner 
to a customer as any salesman could. 

It is conceded here, in France, that but for the savings of the 
women belonging to the lower and middle classes the milliards of 
the Prussian war indenmity would not have been paid so promptly 
as they were. And this can be readily understood when we esti- 
mate what the earnings of say 5,000,000 women are for a single 
year. At two francs a day for 300 days in the year only, each 
person would earn 600 francs, or $120, making the aggregate 
earnings of 5,000,000 women equal to $000,000,000 annually. 
"Whether there is a greater or less number of laboring women 
than this I cannot say, but in a population of 38,000,000 this 
would seem not an unreasonable proportion ; and certain it is 



APPENDIX. 397 

that nearly every female of tlie lower and middle classes in 
France earns her bread with the labor of her hands. Among the 
peasantry in the rural districts the women work habitually in the 
tield ; in the towns and cities they pursue avocations in which 
women are usually employed in this country, besides monopoliz- 
ing, to a great extent, many of the branches for which, in this 
country, we rely entirely upon men's labor. I would commend 
to the thoughtful consideration of grocers, and other small 
dealers who at present find it hard to get along and pay clerk hire 
and other expenses, whether or not they cannot get their wuves 
and daughters to occasionally " look after the store," and thereby 
save the expense of an extra hand. I have not now in my mind 
the larger, class of stores, where there is heavy work and constant 
occupation for two or three men, but allude more particularly to 
the smaller class of shopkeepers, whose business is not large, and 
to whom it is an important matter to keep expenses down to the 
lowest possible point. Are there not many such to whom a wo- 
man's assistance in looking after the interests of the store at odd 
times would make the difference between success and failure ? 

In the agricultural districts of our own country, where much 
butter is made under the old dairy system, farmers' wives probably 
work harder than do- the women in the agricultural districts of 
France, notwithstanding there is much field work done here by wo- 
men ; but in other farming districts the women have comparatively 
easy times, and certainly the shopkeepers in America do not receive 
nearly the same amount of help from the women of their families 
as those of France do ; but pardon me for this long digression on 
the subject of women's work. I do not mean in any way to in- 
sinuate that women in America are less willing to work than 
those of France, nor do I suggest that able-bodied male loafers 
should rest while women toil; I simply call attention to the fact 
that the customs of the two countries differ somewhat in this re- 
spect, and that the intelligent labor of women may be utilized to 
a considerable extent by grocers as well as by other shopkeepers. 

From Bordeaux to Paris is a distance of three hundred and 
sixty miles, yet it took us but nine hours by the mail train to 
make this, including stops — not a bad rate of speed for even our 
fastest trains in America — and considering that we made one stop 



398 COFFEE. 

of tliirty minutes for " breakfast," and three or four others of 
from five to ten minutes each, our average rate of speed could not 
have been far from fifty miles an hour. This is perhaps one of 
the most beautiful sections of this beautiful country. As we pass 
out of Bordeaux, for many miles the road is lined with vineyards. 
Further on we get into a magnificent grain-growing country, 
which continues all the way to Paris. Throughout this country 
there is but little timber, making fuel scarce ; every tree is care- 
fully trimmed, and the little branches bound together to make 
faggots, which are used with a degree of frugality quite at vari- 
ance with the lavish use of wood in the United States. All 
through this section one sees the magnificent !N^orman horses 
working in the fields, sometimes five or six of them harnessed 
tandem and drawing clumsy plows through the stiff soil. This is 
one of the items which impress the traveller as being very dif- 
ferent from what is to be seen in Italy and Spain, where the same 
work is done, in Italy by oxen, and in Spain by insignificant look- 
ing mules. 

Paris is a world in itself. The largest city in the world with 
but one exception ; the most beautiful without any exception. 
Though situated in the interior, a great commercial city, manufac- 
turing an endless variety of articles which, owing to their high 
value, are in a measure independent of cheap transportation, upon 
which the prosperity of other commercial cities depends. The 
following are some of its novel features: Long boulevards or 
avenues, with tall, mansard-roofed houses built to a uniform line, 
the upper stories of which are occupied as dwellings, while the 
ground-floors are fitted up with gorgeous shops ; whole streets of 
dressmakers and tailors, with here and there a jeweler's or 'fancy 
goods store sandwiched among them. In the principal streets 
one sees more foreigners than natives ; most of the shop doors 
and windows display the sign, " English spoken," and a queer 
American eagle, looking like a phoenix rising from its ashes, 
and dotted all over with stripes and stars, is also frequently de- 
picted in the most brilliant colors to attract Americans, of whom 
there is always a liberal sprinkling to be found here. The clean- 
est streets with the smoothest of pavements ; delightful parks in 
the suburbs for excursions ; every amusement that thought or 



APPENDIX. / 399 

fasliion can suggest; treasures of art rivalling those of Italy, 
and attractions in literature and science, music and the drama, 
such as are found nowhere else in the world, bring together at 
this point persons from all parts, who have the time and money to 
gratify their respective tastes. 

In short, Paris is a city of pleasure, toward which all the 
pleasure-seekers of the world gravitate. Here one finds more 
politeness and culture, more wit and wisdom, more vice and virtue 
(perhaps) than in any other place on the face of the globe. 

PiiEISIAN PECULIABITIES UOKSEMEAT AS FOOD VISIT TO A " BOU- 

CHERIE DE CHEVAL." 

The French people are original in more ways than one. Pio- 
neers in many of the walks of science and art, they are absolutely 
pre-eminent in that of alimentation, and the variety of things 
which they utilize as articles of food is something surprising. 
Dealing largely in food products, I naturally take an interest in 
and endeavor to be an authority upon articles in this line. So 
when my eye met the following article in Gallgnani, I forthwith 
determined to investigate its truth ; if possible, visit an abattoir 
and see what kind of horses were utilized in the way described, 
and test the " nourishing " properties of horse-meat by personal 
experience : 

HIPPOPHAGY, 

" The Committee for Propagating the Use of Horseflesh as an Article of Hu- 
man Food has issued the following notice : ' The prevalence of cattle disease in 
dilferent countries of the Continent having determined the British Government 
to prohibit the importation of oxen, cows, and sheep into England, we think the 
public may be usefully reminded of the fact that the employment of horse- 
meat as an article of food has for some years made rapid progress in France. 
Thus, at Paris, the first butcher's establishment for that aliment having been 
opened in 1866, already in the following year 2,152 hordes, mules, and asses had 
been killed for consumption; and the number rose gradually to 2,658 in 1869 ; 
5,733 in 1872 ; 6,865 in 1875 ; and 8,693 horses, 643 asses, and 35 mules in 1876 ; 
the number of butchers' establishments for this article of food being fifty-eight 
on December 31st last. From Paris the use of horseflesh has spread rapidly to 
all the chief towns of France, and veterinary surgeons are appointed by the 
government to examine horses in the same way as cattle. The price of such 
meat is materially lower, notwithstanding the fact that it is most nourishing. 



400 COFFEE. 

At Paris, a special committee exists, composed of pliilanthropists whose aim is 
to extend the use of this new article of food. The founder of this committee, 
M. Decroix, has placed at its disposal the sum of 1,100 francs and a medal of 
honor, to be awarded to the person who first opens and carries on an establish- 
ment in London for the sale of horse-meat. (For information address Mr. 
George Fleming, Veterinary Surgeon, Brompton Barracks, Chatham ; or M. 
Decroix, 5 Rue Saint Benoit, Paris.)' " 

One rainy day I set out upon this mission. ]\Iy first move was 
to call upon M. Decroix, 5 Rue Saint Benoit, but that gentleman 
was absent from home — at the veterinary office of the Mounted 
Garde de Paris, I was told — and to the veterinary office I pro- 
ceeded in search of him. Here I was again disappointed, how- 
ever, in seeing M. Decroix, but a gentlemanly assistant in the office, 
in answer to my inquiries, kindly furnished me with the address 
of one of the largest horse-meat butchers, for whose office I at 
once started. 

M. Tetaed, 

Boucherie de Cheval, 

Rue de Paris 133, 

Pantin, 

was the address, and before I got there I had it vividly im- 
pressed upon me that Paris is a great city. Mile after mile we 
rolled along, every now and then turning into a long boulevard, 
which I thought must certainly be the last one. Scanning the 
retail butchers' shops that we passed, I occasionally saw the sign 
" Boucherie de Cheval " displayed, with an array of meat that 
looked, however, very like that ordinarily sold. Finally we reached 
the Rue de Paris, and following it until we reached the " chemin- 
de-fer de ceinture " (circular railway around the city), we passed 
this, also the inner line of fortifications, and I found myself at 
In^o. 133. Here, however, I only found the rcsidejice of Mon- 
sieur Tetard, the abattoir was a mile further on ; this mile, how- 
ever was soon traversed, and presently a long, low structure came 
in sight, upon which was painted " achat du cheval pour alimenta- 
tion " (horses bought for food). The proprietor was absent, but, 
presenting my card to the person in charge, I was shown the 
abattoir, which was like anv other establishment of the kind, ex- 



APPENDIX. 401 

cept that in one corner was piled an enormons pyramid of horse- 
shoes of all shapes and sizes. But little meat was visible, the busi- 
ness of the day beinj^ principally transacted in the early morning, 
and the meat sold to the retail shops I had seen on my way out 
of the city. What I did see, however, looked \erj like the usual 
fore and hind quarters of beef — perhaps a little leaner. I was more 
desirous, however, of seeing what the horses looked like before 
being killed, and on expressing a desire to visit the stables, I 
was at once shown them. Here were some thirty or forty horses 
awaiting their fate ; some of them very nice-looking ones, and 
some rather " hard specimens of horse-flesh." Judicious pump- 
ing of my cicerone drew out the following facts : That the horses 
purchased for this purpose were all of them, in one way or an- 
other, unfitted for further work ; most of them were disabled by 
some form of accident ; some had contracted diseases of the feet, 
and a few were debarred from further service by old age. I 
asked if these were not very tough ? " Yes," answered the cice- 
rone, " but they do very well for sausages." The prices paid for 
horses at the abattoir range from 50 to 150 francs ($10 to $30), 
according to size, weight, and condition, with occasionally, per- 
haps, extremes both lower and higher. The meat is subject to a 
rigid inspection by the official inspector before being marketed, 
but I did not learn that there was any inspection of the animals be- 
fore slaughtering. This would seem also to be necessary, as some 
forms of disease might then be detected that would not be appa- 
rent in the meat. On an average eighteen horses per day are 
slaughtered at this establishment, with now and then a few asses 
and mules. The superintendent, with much pride, brought out 
for our inspection a photograph of some beasts which were ex- 
hibited at the last Paris Exhibition, and for which he received a 
prize " over all competitors." Speaking of competitors, there is 
competition even in this line, and there are several other horse- 
abattoirs, although that of M. Tetard is the largest. As above 
stated, eighteen animals per day is the average of his establish- 
ment, or say between five and six thousand per year. On the 
way back we stopped at one of the retail shops we had noticed 
coming out. Here, on the usual racks of a butcher's shop, were 
displayed chops, steaks, and roasting-pieces, while through a 
26 



402 COFFEE. 

partly open door, leading to the rear of the building, I caught 
a glimpse of a steam-engine driving a number of sausage-meat 
choppers. I asked to inspect them, but was not allowed, from 
which I inferred that thej were working up some of the an- * 
cient animals which my cicerone at the abattoir had remarked 
" did well enough for sausages." I bought a steak, paying there- 
for about fifteen cents per pound, and taking it home had it pre- 
pared as one of the entrees for that night's dinner. It was a lit- 
tle tough, but very good flavored meat, hardly to be distinguished 
either in looks or taste from an ordinary beefsteak. I do not, 
however, go into ecstacies over horse-meat as do some enthusiastic 
Frenchmen here. There can be no doubt that there are, es- 
pecially in and near all large cities, many horses disabled for work 
that could be utilized as food, and that a considerable supply of 
good and cheap meat could thus be provided. To most people in 
this country, however, the idea of eating horse-flesh is repugnant, 
and it will doubtless be some time before American or English 
people adopt this practice to any extent. My observations in Paris 
led me to believe that horse-meat is mostly consumed by the 
poorer classes, and that the principal incentive is not its superior 
nourishing properties, as some enthusiasts have claimed for it, 
but its lower price. Our German sausage manufacturers have 
occasionally been accused of utilizing stray canines to increase 
their stock of " luscious bolognas," and here they have a material 
at hand which, both in quantity and quality, is preferable. I 
charge nothing for the suggestion. 

BOKDEATJX WDfES — A DESCRIPTION OF THE MEDOC DISTRICT — OFFI- 
CIAL CLASSIFICATION OF CELEBRATED VINEYARDS — ^A VISIT TO 
CHATEAU LAFITE, ETC. 

The district where most of the wines which are exported from 
Bordeaux are grown is not a very extensive one, and is situated in 
the " Departement " of the Gironde, in the southwest of France, 
principally within a circle of thirty or forty miles from the 
city. The city of Bordeaux is situated on the river Garonne, 
which combines with the Dordogne to form the river Gironde, 
some few miles below the city. The principal district for the 



APPENDIX. 403 

production of red wines is situated on the south side of the Gi- 
ronde, between Bordeaux and the sea, and is known as the 
" Medoc District." It is here that all of the celebrated vineyards 
are situated which have made Bordeaux wines famous all over 
the world. The district of Medoc is divided up into " communes," 
or townships, the principal of which are Pauillac, Saint-Julien, 
Margaux, and Saint-Estephe, although there are a dozen or more 
others which yield large quantities of good wines, but which are 
not as well known as those which I have enumerated. These 
" communes," or townships, furnish a general name for all the 
wine grown within their boundaries, but here and there are situ- 
ated celebrated vineyards, the proprietors of which have erected 
fine chateaux, named, in some cases, after the districts in which 
they are situated, and in others after the family by whom they 
are owned. Thus, in the Margaux commune is situated the Cha- 
teau Margaux ; in the Pauillac commune the Chateau Latour, and 
the celebrated Chateau Lafite ; in the Saint-Julien commune. 
Chateau Leoville, Larose, and others, and m each of these com- 
munes are a considerable number of other vineyards less celebrated. 
The quality of the products of all these vineyards is well known, 
and they are classed by the Bordeaux Chamber of Commerce as 
first, second, third, fourth, and fifth crus, or qualities. The word 
" cru " is also somewhat indiscriminately used in the trade to desig- 
nate the chief vineyards, as will be seen by the following list, 
copied from the official classification of the Chamber of Commerce 
of Bordeaux : 

EED WINES. 
Premiers Crus {First Quality). 

Crus. Communes. Proprietors. 

Chateau Lafite Pauillac Rothschild heirs. 

Chateau Margaux Margaux Aguado. 

ide Beaumont, 
de Courtivron. 
de Flers. 
Chateau Haut Brion Pessac Eugene Larrieu, 

Deuxiemes Crus {Second Qxiality). 
Mouton Pauillac Baron Jas. de Rothschild. 

„ ( Segla ,, ( Durand. 

Rauzan i _, Margaux -( _, „ , . 

Gassies Rhone Pereire. 



404 COFFEE. 

Crus. Communes. ProprietorK. 

{Marquis de Las Cazes. 
A. Lalande & Erlanger. 
Barton, 
Vivens Durfort Margaux de Lamar & Richier. 

GruaudLaroze St. Julien j de Bethmann & Fauro. 

( Baron Sarget. 

Lascorabe Margaux Chaix d'Est Ange. 

Brane Cantenac Berger Brothers & Roy. 

iVicomtesse de Lavaur. 
Bne de Pichon Longueville. 
Contesse de Lalande. 

Ducru Beaucaillou St. Julien Nath. Johnston. 

Cos Destournel St. Estephe de Erraza. 

Montrose St. Estephe Mathieu Dollfus. 

Troisiemes Crus {Third Quality). 

Kirwan Cantenac C. Godard. 

Chateau d'Issan Cantenac G. Roy. 

Lagrange St. Julien Comptesse Ducbatel. 

Langoa St. Julien Barton. 

Giscours Labarde J. P. Pescatore. 

St. Exupery Margaux Core, de Boissac, Bernos. 

Boyd Cantenac A. Lalande. 

Palmer Cantenac Emile Pereire. 

La Lagune Ludon Piston heirs. 

Desmirail Margaux Sipierre. 

Dubignon Margaux 

Calon St. Estephe Lestapis heirs. 

Ferriere Margaux Vve J. Ferrieres. 

Becker Margaux Sznadjerski. 

Quatriemes Crus {Fourth Quality). 

„, _. C4. T T S Bontemps Dubary. 

St. Pierre St. Julien {^ ^ ^, •' 

( de Luetkens. 

Talbot St. Julien Marquis d'Aux. 

Duluc Aine St. Julien Heirs of Du Luc Aine. 

Milon Duhart Pauillac Casteja. 

Bouget Lassale Cantenac C. Godard. 

Pouget Cantenac de Chavaille. 

Garnet St. Laurent de Luetkens. 

Ro«het St. Estephe Vve Lafon de Camarsac. 

Chateau de Beychevelle. . .St. Julien P. F. Guestier, Jr. 

Le Prieure Cantenac Mme. Rosset. 

Thermes Margaux Oscar Sollberg. 



APPENDIX. 405 

CinquUmes CrUs (Fifth Quality). 

Cr&S. Communes. Proprietors. 

Canet Pauillac Cruse. 

Batailley Pauillac Halphen. 

^ , -^ x^ .,, ( Mme. Vve. Lacoste and Vte. 

Grand Puy PauiUao i , ^ . ^ ^ . 

( de Saint Legier. 

Artigues Arnaud Pauillac Bne. Duroy de Suduiraut. 

Lynch Pauillac Cayrou. 

Lynch Moussas Pauillac Vasquez. 

Dauzac Labarde Nath. Johnston. 

Mouton Darmailhac Pauillac De Ferrand. 

Le Tertre Arsac Koenigs varter. 

Haut Bages Pauillac Vve. Liberal. 

Pedescleaux Pauillac Vve. Pedescleaux. 

Coutenceau St. Laurent Vve. Brun Devez. 

Camensac St. Laurent Popp. 

Cos Labory. St. Estephe Louis Peychaud. 

Clerc Milon Pauillac Clerc heirs. 

Croizet Bages Pauillac Calve Julien. 

Chateau de Cantemerle . . . Macan Mme. d'Abadie. 

WHITE WINES. 
Premier Cru Superieur {First Class, Superior Quality). 
Yquem .Sauternes de Lur Saluces (Bertrand). 

Premiers Crus {First Quality). 

La Tour Blanche Bommes Merman & Maitre. 

Peyraguey Bommes Cte Duchatel. 

Vigneau Bommes de Pontac. 

Suduiraut Preignac Gaillot Frores. 

Coutet Barsac de Lur Saluces (Bertrand). 

Climens Barsac Ribet. 

Bayle Sauternes Bernard. 

Rieusec Sauternes Maye. 

Rabeaud Bommes Drouillet de Segalas. 

Deuxiemes Crus {Second Quality). 

Mirat Barsac Vve. Moller. 

Doisy Barsac Debans. 

Pexoto Bommes Ribet. 

D'Arche Sauternes Lafaurie, Jr., & Co. 

Filhot Sauternes de Lur Saluces (Bertrand). 

Broustet, Nerac Barsac Capdeville. 

Caillon Barsac Saraute. 

Suau Barsac Mme. Vve. Paris. 

Malle Preignac de Lur Saluces (Henri). 

Romer Preignac de la Myre Mory. 

Lamothe Sauternes Massieux, and others. 



406 coFrEE. 

By this it will be seen that of red wines there are only four 
vineyards, viz., Chateau Lafite, Chateau Margaux, Chateau Latour, 
and Chateau Haut Brion, in the first class, eleven in the second 
class, fourteen in the third class, eleven in the fourth class, and 
seventeen in the fifth class. Of the white wines, which are mostly 
grown a few miles above Bordeaux, on the river Garonne, there 
are only two divisions made in this classification, namely, premier 
and deuxieme (first and second), but the celebrated Chateau Yquem 
is given a special class by itself, " Premier Cru Superieur," that 
is, of the first class, superior quality. The principal townships, 
or "communes," producing white wines are Barsac, Preignac, 
Bommes and Sauternes, in the latter of which is situated Chateau 
Yquem, and the name of this township (Sauternes) has become so 
well known in connection with the production of white wines that 
in some markets it is quite indiscriminately applied to all white 
wines of French growth. 

When in Bordeaux I made an excursion to the Medoc district, 
and being furnished with letters to the custodian of Chateau Lafite, 
which now belongs to the Kothschild family, 1 had the j^leasure of 
inspecting the vineyards and cellars of this renowned chateau. 
Leaving Bordeaux by the " Chemin-de-fer du Medoc," we stopped 
at Blanquefort, Margaux, Saint- Julien, and finally arrived at Pauil- 
lac, a distance of thirty miles. Most of the country through 
which we passed was of a rolling character and covered with vines 
as far as the eye could reach. Taking a carriage at the station, a 
drive of a mile or more brought us to the chateau, a picturesque 
old structure, situated on a slight eminence, and commanding a 
fine view of the surrounding country. It not being the season of 
the vintage, we of course could not see the actual process of crush- 
ing and pressing the grape, but all the paraphernalia for this 
work were inspected, and we then proceeded to look at the vari- 
ous vintages which were stored in the cellars of the chateau. 
Perhaps I should here state that the quality of the wine produced 
by this celebrated vineyard is so well known that it is sold in ad- 
vance, excepting the portion which is reserved by the proprietors 
for the cellars of the chateau. The bulk of the crop is seldom 
kept on the premises more than two seasons, by which time the 
fermentation is completed, and the wines are in a condition to be 



APPEIS'DIX. 407 

sent to tlie cellars of the purchasers in Bordeaux. The last two 
vintages, those of 1S75 and ISTG, were still on the premises, and, 
as a matter of curiosity, I tasted them. They were simply cui-i- 
ous as showing what a very fine wine is in its earlier stages, as of 
course, they were as yet not fit for drinking. 

The private cellars of the chateau, however, contained a col- 
lection of vintages, enough to throw a lover of Bordeaux wines 
into raptures. Here were collected vintages of every year from 
1810 to the present time, nearly all of which were in bottle. 
Here one could walk for a mile or more, up one aisle and down 
another, flanked on either side with regular tiers of bottles con- 
taining wine, some of which was simply priceless, and of a char- 
acter unique in its way. Not only are specimens of the products 
of the Lafite vineyard preserved here, but also those of other well 
known vineyards for comparison, all of which are systematically 
arranged, according to the various dates of production. After 
educating our palates we left the cellars, took a hasty glance at 
the soil immediately surrounding the chateau, picked up some of 
the white, flinty pebbles as souvenirs of our visit, and then, jump- 
ing into a carriage, were fortunate enough, by quick driving, to 
be just in time for the return train for Bordeaux, reaching the 
hotel in time for dinner, and delighted at being able to make the 
trip within the short time at command. 



A MODEL ENGLISH GROCEKY-STOEE. 

AEEANGE^IENT OF STOCK, DRESSING OF WIISDOWS, ETC. 

In whatever line of business a man may be engaged, the shops 
in that line are always of interest to him : the publisher can al- 
ways see a book-store quicker than any other ; a manufacturer of 
furniture finds something to interest him in the show-windows of 
dealers in that branch, and I can vouch for the fact that, however 
carelessly I may pass by other shops, the well-dressed M'indows of 
a grocery-store always detain me long enough to take a critical 
glance at the arrangement and the prices which may be ticketed. 



408 COFFEE. 

The French are eminently tasty in the arrangement of their 
modistes' show-rooms and windows, and dealers in fancy goods, 
jewelry, etc., also excel in their display and decorations ; all sorts 
of small packages are put up in the neatest manner, but I do not 
think the French grocers keep up to the standard established by 
their brethren in other lines. While there are some handsome 
grocery-stores, the majority of them are small, and there is a 
dingy look and an air of confusion about them which does not 
speak well for their arrangement. The English grocery-stores, or 
" shops," as they are called, are larger and better arranged ; show- 
windows are utilized to the fullest extent for display ; coarse and 
uncleanly goods are kept out of sight, while shelf and all small 
package goods which have attractive labels, are arranged with a 
neatness and a precision which gives a cheerful look to the whole 
store. Taken altogether, I believe that English retail grocers are 
more thoroughly educated and drilled, and know their business 
better than those of any other country. 

When in London I had an opportunity to inspect the arrange- 
ment and business system of Messrs. Leverett & Frye, leading 
retail grocers in London. Beginning with one store at Greenwich, 
in the suburbs of London, they have steadily increased their 
business until now they have thirteen, and every new one that 
is added contains in its arrangement some improvements which 
experience has suggested. Of those I visited, the most perfectly 
arranged was l\o. 119 Gloucester road. Regent's Park, a small 
corner store, but with every inch of space so well utilized that as 
full an assortment was kept here as in any of the larger stores. 
Two large show-windows were most tastefully dressed, one with 
canned goods and other neatly labelled packages, the other with 
the bottled wines of Messrs. W. & A. Gilbey, the great Mdne im- 
porters of London, for whom Messrs. Leverett & Frye are local 
agents. Only bottled wines and liquors are kept, thus avoiding 
the trouble, waste, and expense of breaking packages. A feature 
of the window-dressing was different-colored tissue-paper, cut into 
thin, grassy strips, and these crumpled up and laid as a garnishment 
between each layer of cans or bottles, gave a very pretty effect of 
color, and made as nmcli of an improvement in the locks of the 
windows as a few green sprigs of parsley make in the looks of dishes 



APPEIS^DIX. 409 

of fish and meat when brought upon the table. This is a little 
thing, costs but a trifle, and if the grocer will try the experiment 
he will be surprised at the improved effect. In this store, also, 
the show-windows were shut off from the rest of the store inside 
by glass-doors, so that the goods placed in the windows might be 
protected from the dust and dirt. Along one side and at the rear 
of the store extend the counters, which are of mahogany, and the 
shelves are faced with a narrow strip of the same wood, highly 
polished, making them look as if they were all mahogany also. 
The most prominent thing behind the main counter, against the 
wall, are the tea-boxes, which outside are of wood, handsomely 
decorated and labelled, but lifting the half lid reveals a tin box 
the size of a chest of tea ; this is to retain the flavor of the tea 
and prevent it absorbing that of the wood, and as the wooden 
fronts of the boxes are arranged to slide out, the tin box can be 
taken to another part of the store to be filled and then replaced 
in position. I forgot to state that the tea-boxes are twenty-four 
inches square and raised about eight inches from the floor, this 
space being occupied by a row of drawers, which are used for 
various articles. Above the tea boxes begin a row of shelves 
eleven inches deep ; the first is also eleven inches high, and occu- 
pied with small shelf goods ; then one nine inches high, where 
various colored papers, cut to convenient sizes and printed with 
the firm's name and address, are ready for use. Above this is a 
space of twenty-four inches, which is utilized for cans of green 
tea, cocoa, etc., and above this is a twenty-one inch space, which 
is filled with canned and other small shelf goods in great variety. 
Above these is the cornice, Mdiich projects over the shelves six 
inches, being about eighteen inches wide, and on the top of the 
cornice are placed cans of biscuits, and other light goods. The 
above describes the arrangement behind the main counter, which 
extends, perhaps, two-thirds the length of the store ; then comes 
a break for a passage-way, and beyond extends a similar counter, 
behind which, instead of shelves, are arranged a "chest of draw- 
ers," if this expression may be allowed to describe a series of 
drawers, rising one above the other, something like the arrange- 
ment I have seen in many country drug-stores in the United 
States. In these are kept the various articles which are sold in 



410 COFFEE. 

bulk in small quantities. Under the counters are arranged, also, 
a series of large drawers, in wliicli are kept sugar, roasted coffee, 
currants, raisins, and various farinaceous goods, the coffee-drawers 
being tin-lined for the purpose of preserving the flavor, and only 
a week's supply is furnished at a time. Every morning enough 
coffee of the different grades is ground for the day's supply, and 
kept in closed tin-canisters. A day's supply of sugar is also 
kept, put up in convenient-sized packages, ready for immediate 
delivery. Before the fruit is put into the drawers, the currants, 
prunes, and Valencia raisins are cleaned or " dressed ; " this is 
done, with currants, by breaking them up, sifting them in a sieve 
with a square mesh about five to the inch, which lets the dirt and 
pieces of stems go through, and then they are sprinkled with a 
dressing composed of one ■ part of molasses or syrup to say two 
parts of water, and shaken and rubbed about until they look 
clean and bright. With raisins (except bunch fruit for dessert) 
the same process is used, except that the meshes of the sieve are 
an inch long and a quarter of an inch apart— a screen rather than 
a sieve. Old fruit will sometimes be candied and wormy, but this 
process removes the worms, renovates it, and renders it fit for 
use. The rear of the store is occupied by hams and the coarser 
kinds of goods. No butter and cheese is handled by grocers here, 
the sale of those articles being a distinct business, and transacted 
exclusively by the " cheesemongers," who are quite an important 
class, much more so tlian in the United States. The English are 
very large xjonsumers of cheese, no meal being considered com- 
plete without cheese with bread and butter being served as a 
closing course ; and while they fondly cherish the illusion that 
England produces the best cheese in the world, by far the larger 
portion of their best " Cheshire " comes from the United States. 
But to resume my description of the arrangement of the store. 
A liberal floor space is kept clear for the use of customers, but along 
the wall opposite the counter are arranged various goods, which 
show well, including a few lemons, oranges, nuts, and other des- 
sert articles. Along a portion of the front of the counter also is 
suspended a shallow glass-covered rack, in which is a small assort- 
ment of " fruits glaccs " and choice confectionery, which is kept 
fresh by frequent renewals, and by the door is a " biscuit rack," 



APPENDIX. 411 

in whicli cans of choice dessert crackers, covered with glass, are 
shown to the best advantage by tipping them forward, so that a 
person entering the store can hardly fail to see them, and, at the 
same time they are accessible for weighing out as wanted. 

Every inch of the room " down-stairs " is utilized for storage 
of surplus stock, empty packages, etc., including the sugar-cutting 
machine, the only thing about the place which I thought inferior 
to our American way of doing things. The hard sugar is bought 
in the usual concave loaves, and cut uj) by hand into square lumps 
for the table; but our American "cut loaf," which is now being 
exported in liberal quantities to the English market, will soon cure 
them of doing business in that way. 

Messrs. Leverett & Frye do business for cash over the counter 
or one week's credit, credit customers being furnished with a book 
for convenience sake, and called upon each day at their resi- 
dences by a clerk, who takes and delivers their orders. Every 
Monday he brings back with him the amount of the previous 
week's account, or no more orders are filled. Deliveries are made 
mostly with small hand-carts, although horses and wagons are 
used to some extent. Mr. Leverett attends principally to the 
buying, and Mr. Frye to the selling and executive part of the 
business, visiting all the different stores daily and taking a weekly 
statement of business done from each one. Stock is taken every 
six months, and a thorough system of book-keeping shows the 
result of the business of each store, and also the aggregate busi- 
ness of the firm. It is difficult to find efficient superintendents, 
but they are paid by an interest in the profits, and where results 
are not satisfactory a change is made. A catalogue and price list 
is issued uniform at all their different stores, and based upon the 
same scale of prices as charged at the civil service co-operative 
stores. Messrs. Leverett & Frye have no difficulty in competing 
with these societies, although many small grocers who do not 
apply the same principles feel the competition seriously. These 
principles are : Buying and selling for ready money, or very close 
to it, local convenience of stores, free collection of orders, and de- 
livery of goods. They estimate their gross profit at 14 to 15 per 
cent. 



412 COFFEE. 



THE SALT DISTKICT OF CHESHIKE. 

ENGLISH SALT, HOW IT IS MADE DOWN IN A SALT MINE THE DIF- 
FERENT STRATA AND QUALITIES OF ROCK SALT IN THE CHESHIRE 
DISTRICT. 

Leaving Liverpool by the London and North "Western Railway, 
a ride of twenty miles brought me to the little station of Llartf ord, 
where I left the train and took a carriage for a drive through the 
salt district. Before reaching Hartford, however, we passed sev- 
eral pretty rural villages, and also the great chemical manufac- 
turing town of Widnes. Here are situated the great works of 
Muspratt & Co., Golding, Davis & Co., Gossage & Co., and many 
others whose brands are familiar to American manufacturers and 
dealers, all for the manufacture of soda ash, carbonate and caustic 
soda, etc., and the town of Widnes, now containing several thousand 
inhabitants, has been created solely by this industry. Here also 
is situated the great bridge of the London and !North "Western 
Railway over the river Mersey, one of the engineering wonders of 
the age. But to return to the subject of salt. I entered a carriage 
at Hartford, and proceeding by an old road, dating back to the 
Roman period (in fact part of the old Roman highway from Ches- 
ter to York), I soon reached Delamere Park, a portion of the 
landed estate of Lord Delamere. Here, turning off from the 
main road, I passed through the park, and on by a charming 
English back country road, skirted by picturesque straw-thatched 
vine-clad cottages, to the little village of Over. Here I began to 
see the tall brick chimneys of the salt works, and, driving down to 
"Winsford Bridge, perhaps half a mile further, I was in close 
proximity to a perfect forest of these, all belching forth clouds of 
heavy black smoke, which fairly obscures the sun, and at all times 
fills the air with the black floating particles thrown off by the 
bituminous coal — imagine a black snow-storm on a gentle and light 
scale, and you have an idea of the atmosphere. This smoke is so 
dense and constant that it almost ruins vegetation, even the foli- 
age of large trees being affected, so that it looks as if a blight had 
passed over them, withering the leaves and blackening the 



APPENDIX. 413 

branches. A salt district is perhaps the most uninviting of local- 
ities, for, in addition to the blighting effect which the smoke has 
upon the verdure, all the houses have a dilapidated, tumble-down 
appearance, caused by the sinking of the earth where the salt 
beneath has dissolved, and has been pumped up in the shape of 
brine. Quite a number of ponds and small lakes have been formed 
in Cheshire from the earth sinking, and the depression thus formed 
gradually filling up with surface-drainage. These ponds and lakes 
are here known as " flashes." I was now in the Winsford upper 
section of the Cheshire Salt district, covering an extent of perhaps 
two and one-half square miles, and near me were the works of 
Verdins, Deakin, Falk, Evans, the Amalgamated Company, and 
a host of others. From here to the lower end of the salt district, 
known as Northwich, it is four or five miles, and the i^orthwich 
district comprises an area of perhaps two square miles. Between 
these two sub-districts are several little villages or hamlets. In 
the Northwich district there are situated a large number of 
works, among which are those of the British Company, Worth- 
ington, Ashton, and Iliggin, besides a number of salt mines. Be- 
fore proceeding to describe the usual process of salt-making, per- 
haps I ought to state what a salt mine is. In both AVinsford and 
Northwich there are found two layers or strata of solid salt-rock, 
and it is supposed that these extend under a great part of the county 
of Cheshire. The first, or upper stratum, is found at a depth 
of one hundred and eighty to two hundred feet below the surface, 
and is about ninety feet thick. Then comes a layer of rock, three 
hundred and fifty to four hundred feet, when the second, or lower 
stratum of salt-rock is reached ; this is about twice the thickness of 
the upper stratum, and of better quality, being cleaner and freer 
from impurities. The quality of the salt-rock in the same stratum 
also varies much, and, as a rule, the best is found at the bottom of 
the stratum. In opening a salt mine, a shaft is sunk until rock-salt 
of a satisfactory quality is reached, and then it is worked the same 
as a coal mine. But to give an idea of what " down in a salt mine " 
is, I must describe my experience. Stepping into a bucket speci- 
ally prepared for visitors, the signal was given, the engine reversed, 
and we were lowered, or rather dropped, at a rate which gave me 
a rather uncomfortable, " aU-gone " feeling in the region of my 



414 COFFEE. 

stomacli, but in a few seconds the speed slackened, and oiir guide 
pointed out the location of the first stratum, as we slowly passed it. 
The speed again increased, and in a few more seconds we were at 
the lower stratum ; but, to my surprise, instead of finding lofty 
chambers the entire thickness of the stratum, as I had imagined, 
I found only a thickness of from twelve to fifteen feet, taken out 
from the very bottom. From the shaft, tramways led off in every 
direction, and little platform cars, on which were hoisting buckets 
ready filled with large lumps of salt, were being drawn by horses 
to the shaft. Following one of these galleries, I soon found 
myself where the miners were at work. The salt-rock is about 
as hard as anthracite coal, and is worked by being blasted in the 
same way. Regular pillars of salt (considerably larger than Lot's 
wife, I fancy) are left as supports for the roof, but the salt is so 
solid and homogeneous that there is less danger than with coal, and 
these pillars are less frequent than in any coal mine I have ever 
visited. The air in this salt mine was also much better, being 
pure, dry, and cool. Here were acres and acres of cool, pure- 
aired galleries, which, if they could be utilized for storage by the 
brewers of Germany and America, or the champagne manufac- 
turers of France, would be worth fortunes. 

Ascending again to the surface, I witnessed the treatment of 
the salt-rock. Much of this is shipped as it is when raised from 
the mine, direct to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (whose cus- 
toms tariffs discriminate against refined salt), where it is refined 
for use. Some is crushed as soon as raised from the mine, and 
used in its natural state for agricultural and manufacturing 
purposes, and more is refined and used in various ways. The 
best, and by far the greater quantity of salt manufactured in the 
Cheshire salt districts, however, is made by pumping up the water 
which has come in contact wdth the salt strata, in many places 
dissolving the rock and becoming strongly impregnated with saline 
matter. In this way most of the earthy and insoluble matter re- 
mains below ground, and the salt manufactured turns out pure and 
white. As may be inferred from the above description of differ- 
ences in the quality of the rock-salt, the quality of the brine also 
differs, that from the lower stratum being generally the best. It is 
pumped by steam-power into reservoirs, for the double purpose of 



APPENDIX. 415 

allowing it to settle, and to have a supply in case of the pump 
breaking down. From thence it is run into iron evapoi-ating pans, 
perhaps twenty by twenty -five feet and eighteen inches high ; mider 
these runs a furnace fine, and in about three hours the brine begins 
to boil • in twelve hours much salt has precipitated, and about 
five tons is usually taken out of each pan. This is done with a 
" sieve spade " (a shovel with a perforated bottom). The wet salt is 
thrown into conical moulds, left to drain one hour, and then 
taken to the drying room, where it remains five or six days in a 
temperature of 180° to 190° ; thence to the breaking room, where 
it is broken up fine, and packed for shipment. 

In witnessing this apparently simple process, I was tempted to 
say, "Well, anybody can do that," but on closer examination I 
found that some of the processes required as much care, skill, and 
experience as almost any other branch of business, and that 
quality of production depended, first, on the quality of the brine ; 
second, on improved appliances and utensils ; and, third, on the 
experience, skill, and care devoted to the business. For instance, 
the Ashton and Higgin Works are the only ones using iron 
floors for drying rooms, which, although more expensive than 
brick, dry more quickly, uniformly, and cleanly. They also use a 
different form of mould from the others, and Iliggin's Works 
stand pre-eminent in one important feature, namely, having a set 
of pans for giving the brine a preliminary heating and treatment 
which precipitates all sediment and impurities before running it 
into the evaporating pans. Indeed, every part of the Higgin 
Works bears evidence of the care and cleanliness bestowed upon 
their product ; every mould of salt is carefully scraped before 
breaking, to remove any soot or dirt which may have settled upon 
it ; the sacks are the best that can be procured, and many similar 
items, small and unimportant in themselves, are carefully looked 
after, and doubtless in the aggregate have something to do with 
the popularity of this brand. The Higgin Works are owned 
by Thomas Higgin & Co., and the Ashton by a Mr. McDowell. 
The largest manufacturers in the Cheshire salt districts are the 
Messrs. Yerdin, and, probably, Deakins' Works come next. The 
district has cheap transportation to Liverpool by canal and river 
(the Mersey), and without this the salt deposits of Cheshire 



416 COFFEE. 

would be of little value, for salt, being a heavy article of low 
value, will not bear high rates of transportation. Cheap coal 
and labor are also necessary to make salt cheaply, and in this, as 
well as in the quality of the brine, the Cheshire salt district is 
specially favored. Liverpool, doubtless, owes much of its pros- 
perity to the salt of Cheshire, which furnishes return cargoes to a 
large portion of the ships bringing cargoes to Liverpool ; indeed, 
I am told that salt is sometimes taken as ballast for nothing. 
The principal markets for English salt are the United States and 
Lidia, but it goes, in greater or less quantities, all over the world. 



THE END. 



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